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Index
accidents
cars 22
industrial 38, 57
acquiescence 16
American Chemistry Council 32, 33
anchoring biases 27, 32
association, freedom of 53, 209
attacking strategy 15
authoritarian states 55, 56, 58
avoidance 15, 17, 115
baby food 53
balancing strategy 16
banks 34
bargaining 16
best practices 114
beyond-compliance performance 13, 16, 24, 28, 81, 82
Costa Rica CST program 147, 151, 152, 159–61, 162, 163, 168, 169, 176, 178, 180, 181, 182
environmental protection 1, 7, 9, 18, 37, 73, 74, 78, 79, 87, 89, 92, 93, 105, 106, 107, 109, 145, 146, 148, 149, 150, 186, 188, 196, 203
US ski industry 111–13
bisphenol A (BPA) 33, 34
boards of directors 28, 29–30
buffering strategy 15
business responses to policy process demands 12–18
measurement of resistance 18–19
Canada 33
forestry 60
car accidents 22
centralization 46
Certification for Sustainable Tourism (CST; Costa Rica) 114, 144, 145–6, 149, 162, 185, 212
beyond-compliance performance 147, 151, 152, 159–61, 162, 163, 168, 169, 176, 178, 180, 181, 182
economic benefits to firms 190–1, 193–200, 202–3
environmental protection 146, 147, 166–83
limitations of studies and future research 163–4, 200–1
methodology of study 167–70
assessment of economic benefits to firms 190–1
data analysis 167–8
data collection 150, 167
sample 150, 189
statistical analysis 189
variable measures 151–3, 168–70, 191–3
participation 153–9
results of studies 153–61, 170–6, 193–200
study of managers and proactive environmental protection 166–70, 180–3
discussion 177–80
findings 170–6
methodology 167–70
challenging strategy 15
chemical industry
Responsible Care program 18, 107, 116
China 46, 205
adulterated baby formula 53
freedom of press and speech 53
industrial accidents 57
mining industry 57
chlorofluorocarbon compounds (CFCs) 24
cigarettes 28
climate change 25, 38
coal mining 38, 57
coercion 36
cognitive simplification processes 23
command-and-control regulation 46, 62–4, 210
competitiveness 71, 187
compliance 16, 205
compromise 16, 17
concealing strategy 15
conflicts of interest 33
Conservation International 28
Board of Directors 29–30
context 205, 208–11
economic context 64–7
moderating effect 4, 46, 47, 49, 52, 60, 208–11
political context 48–9
level of democratization 49–57, 208
policy network style 57
regulatory approach 62–4, 210
contradictory preferences and values 11
control 14
control biases 24, 27
convergence of policies 45
cooperation 13, 34–6
co-opt 14
corporatist systems 58–9, 60, 61, 203, 210, 212
neo-corporatism 58, 61, 203, 210, 212
state-corporatism 58, 60, 61, 210
Costa Rica 1, 144, 211
national parks 1, 146, 148, 152, 157, 161, 169, 192, 198, 199
tourism and hotel industry 146–8, 161, 211
See also Certification for Sustainable Tourism
credibility 188
defiance 15, 17, 56
delays 31, 33
democracy 19, 45, 47, 48
level of democratization 49–57, 208
freedom of association 53, 209
freedom of political participation and right to vote 55–7, 209
freedom of press and speech 52–3
developing countries 45, 66, 144, 205, 211
micro-businesses 74–5
voluntary programs 144
World Bank classification according to GNI 68
discounting of the future 27
dismissing strategy 15
economic benefits to firms of voluntary programs 186–7, 201–2
Certification for Sustainable Tourism 190–1, 193–200, 202–3
price premium 187, 188, 190, 197, 198, 202, 212
economic context 64–7
gross national income (GNI) 64–5, 67
economic growth 46
Kuznets curve 65
ecotourism 162, 163
education
study of managers and proactive environmental protection 172–4, 176, 177–80
top manager demographic characteristics 81–2
academic major 82–3, 174
effectiveness of voluntary programs 114–17
Sustainable Slopes Program 116, 133–9
self-selection bias 96, 123, 150, 151, 161, 168, 190, 193, 198
Heckman technique 96, 122, 123, 151, 168, 189
elections 55
environmental and social responsibility (E&SR)
managers 35–6
environmental defense 28
environmental management systems (EMS) 114
ISO-14001 94, 115, 116, 158
environmental protection 1, 5, 6, 9, 37, 46, 53, 55, 56, 60, 62, 63, 65, 66, 72, 73, 80, 86, 87, 92, 93, 104, 109, 111, 114, 117, 120, 128, 134, 137, 138, 139, 140, 144, 152, 162, 169, 179, 180, 185, 186, 208, 209, 210, 211, 213
Environmental Protection Agency (US) 46, 115, 205
escalating commitment 27
escape strategy 15
evolutionary theory 21
export orientation 78–9
Federal Mine Safety and Health Administration 38
financial performance 71–3
firms 69–71
economic benefits from voluntary programs 186–7, 201–2
Certification for Sustainable Tourism (CST) 190–1, 193–200, 202–3
export orientation 78–9
financial performance 71–3
firm size 73–4
industry association membership 79–81
industry type 75–6
limitations to influence of 83–4
micro-businesses and protective policy process 74–5
multinational corporation subsidiaries 76–7
resistance strategies 13–18, 23, 26, 27, 28–31, 32–4, 36, 48, 56, 115, 144
measurement 18–19
resource-based theory 187–8
voluntary programs and 188–9, 202
stock market participation 77–8
top manager demographic characteristics 81
academic major 82–3, 174
formal education level 81–2
nationality 83, 174, 176
Fontera
Chinese baby formula scandal 53
Food and Drug Administration (FDA) 28, 32
forestry 60, 75, 86
ski industry and US Forest Service 118–19
formulation-selection stage of protective public policy process 25–31, 207
fraud, electoral 55
free-riding 140, 141, 186, 202
opportunism 115, 142
Sustainable Slopes Program 89, 94, 105, 112, 115
future, discounting of 27
future research agenda 163–4, 200–1, 213–14
Global Climate Challenge Program 116
global trends and pressures 45
government and the state 23
authoritarian states 55, 56, 58
corporatist systems 58–9, 60, 61, 203, 210, 212
Costa Rica CST program and 152, 203
legitimacy 45
pluralist systems 59–60, 61, 210
US ski industry study and 92, 98, 105
Guatemala 54
habitualization 16, 36
health and safety standards 36
coal mining 38
Heckman two-stage technique correction for self-selection bias 96, 122, 123, 151, 168, 189
hotel industry 148, 211
See also Certification for Sustainable Tourism
ideology 13
imitation 16
implementation stage of protective public policy process 31–9, 207–8
incentive-based regulation 62–4, 71, 212
incumbency 41
industrial accidents 38, 57
industry associations 73, 79–81
American Chemistry Council 32, 33
Costa Rica CST program and 149, 158, 159
National Ski Areas Association (NSAA) 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 95, 112, 117, 118, 119, 120, 124, 125, 126, 141
National Chamber of Tourism (Costa Rica) 150, 152, 158, 163, 167, 170, 193, 203
US ski industry study 94
influence 14
informal economy 74–5
informal pressures and sanctions 37
initiation stage of protective public policy process 21, 206–7
insurance companies 34
interest groups 22, 25, 31, 46, 59
freedom of association 53, 209
internal coalitions 35
isomorphic behavior 7, 11, 37, 70, 83, 84, 148, 159
Kuznets curve 65
land ownership 98
lawsuits 33
lax enforcement 38
leadership 17
legal challenges 33
legitimacy 9, 10, 11, 24, 26, 31, 32, 33, 35, 40, 47, 54, 55, 56, 64, 70, 104, 108, 114, 133, 209
government 13, 45, 206–7
lobbying 32
management
environmental and social responsibility (E&SR) managers 35–6
study of managers and proactive environmental protection 166–7, 180–3
discussion 177–80
findings 170–6
methodology 167–70
top manager demographic characteristics 81
academic major 82–3, 174
formal education level 81–2
nationality 83, 174, 176
manipulation 14, 17, 56, 57, 61
manufacturing industry 75
market prices 27
measurement of resistance 18–19
methodological issues
Certification for Sustainable Tourism study
assessment of economic benefits to firms 190–1
data analysis 150–1
data collection 150, 167
sample 150, 189
statistical analysis 189
variable measures 151–3, 191–3
correction for self-selection bias 96, 123, 150, 151, 161, 168, 190, 193, 198
Heckman two-stage technique 96, 122, 123, 151, 168, 189
study of managers and proactive environmental protection
data analysis 167–8
data collection 167
variable measurements 168–70
US ski industry study 95–8, 122–8
data collection 95, 124–5
measures 97, 125–8
regression analysis 95–7
sample 95
statistical analysis 122–4
micro-businesses 74–5
mining industry 75
China 57
coal 38, 57
Massey Energy Co 38, 39
West Virginia 38, 39
moderating effect 3, 4, 5, 21, 46, 47, 208–11
economic context 208
gross national income 65, 67
democratic freedoms 47, 49–57, 208, 209
political context 47, 208, 209
regulatory approach 62, 64, 210
systems of interest representation
corporatism 60, 210
pluralism 60, 61–2
modernity 47
Montreal Protocol 24
motivations for participation in voluntary programs 113
multinational corporations (MNCs) 24
Fontera 53
subsidiaries 76–7
Costa Rica CST program and 149–50, 158–9, 160–1, 162
National Chamber of Tourism (Costa Rica) 150, 152, 158, 163, 167, 170, 193, 203
national income 65
World Bank’s country classification 68
National Ski Areas Association (NSAA) 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 95, 112, 117, 118, 119, 120, 124, 125, 126, 141
nationality of top managers 83, 174, 176
nature conservancy 28
neo-corporatist systems 58, 61, 203, 210, 212
neo-institutional theory 2, 3, 87, 113, 133, 162, 205
agency dilema 11
coercive pressures 2, 3, 11, 12, 31, 34, 36, 40, 56, 63, 70, 83, 92, 103, 107, 108, 115, 133, 134, 137, 138, 139, 140, 148, 162, 208
isomorphism 7, 11, 37, 70, 83, 84, 148, 159
legitimacy 9, 10, 11, 24, 26, 31, 32, 33, 35, 40, 47, 54, 55, 56, 64, 70, 104, 108, 114, 133, 209
government 13, 45, 206–7
mimetic pressures 70, 79, 148, 149
normative pressures 11, 70, 78, 79, 83, 93, 103, 107, 133, 134, 137, 139, 140, 148, 149, 159, 162
public policies and 10–12
sedimentation 36, 61, 208, 210
subjectification 13
US ski industry study 91–2
nonprofit organizations 24
objectification 36
Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) 36
opportunism 115, 142
ozone layer depletion 24
pacification strategy 16
pluralist systems 59–60, 61, 210
policy capture 39–41
policy process perspective 206
political concerns 25, 31
political context 48–9
level of democratization 49–57, 208
freedom of association 53, 209
freedom of political participation and right to vote 55–7, 209
freedom of press and speech 52–3
policy network style 57
corporatist systems 58–9, 60, 61, 203, 212
neo-corporatism 58, 61, 203, 210, 212
pluralist systems 59–60, 61, 210
state-corporatism 58, 60, 61, 210
pluralist systems 59–60, 61, 210
regulatory approach 62–4, 210
command-and-control 46, 62–4, 210
incentive-based 62–4, 71, 212
political participation 55–7, 209
political pressures 11, 12, 23, 31, 36
power, faces of 12–13, 31
press freedom 46, 52–3, 209
prior hypothesis bias 23
profitability 72, 74, 104
profit-maximization 10, 27
protective public policy process 205
country context 44–8, 205, 208–11
economic context 64–7
firms’ resistance resistance 13–18, 23, 26, 27, 28–31, 32–4, 36, 48, 56, 115, 144
measurement 18–19
micro-businesses and 74–5
political context 48–9
level of democratization 49–57, 208
policy network style 57
United States of America 9, 19–20, 206–8
formulation-selection stage 25–31, 207
implementation stage 31–9, 207–8
initiation stage 21, 206–7
inverted U relationship 20–2, 206
public land 91, 98, 103, 105, 118, 127
public policies
classification of business responses–policy process demands 12–18
measurement of resistance 18–19
neo-institutionalism and 10–12
protective policies 1
rational choice hypothesis 67
regional variations 67
regression analysis
Costa Rica’s Certification for Sustainable Tourism 149, 150, 151, 153, 157, 159, 160, 161, 163, 167, 168, 172, 174, 175, 177, 178, 190, 191, 193, 196, 198, 199, 200
US ski industry study 95–7, 98, 99, 101, 102, 103, 122, 123, 124, 125, 128, 133
regulation
command-and-control regulation 46, 62–4, 210
environmental 1, 71, 92, 109, 111, 118, 162, 182, 212
incentive-based 62–4, 71, 212
self-regulation initiatives 16, 18
social protection 1, 4, 18, 19, 23, 24, 27, 28, 32, 34, 35, 36, 37, 40, 45, 47, 48, 53, 54, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 67, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 207, 210
reputation 188
resistance 13–18, 23, 26, 27, 28–31, 32–4, 36, 48, 56, 115, 144
measurement 18–19
resource-based theory of the firm 187–8
voluntary programs and 188–9, 202
Responsible Care Program 18, 107, 116
Russia 52
Sanlu 53
seat belts 22
self-regulation initiatives 16, 18
size of firms 73–4
Costa Rica CST program and 158, 160
US ski industry study 92, 98, 104
ski industry 86–7, 106–9, 111–13, 211
context 117–18
environmental performance 105–6
Forestry Service and 118–9
methodology of study 95–8, 122–8
data collection 95, 124–5
measures 97, 125–8
regression analysis 95–7
sample 95
statistical analysis 122–4
National Ski Areas Association (NSAA) 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 95, 112, 117, 118, 119, 120, 124, 125, 126, 141
results of study 99–101, 128
Sustainable Slopes Program 87–91, 105, 107, 111, 112–13, 119, 212
adoption 128
effectiveness 116, 133–9
participation 97, 99, 103–5, 107–9, 112, 113, 139–41
theory and hypotheses 91–5
social movements 41
social network theory 79
social protection 1, 4, 18, 19, 23, 24, 27, 28, 32, 34, 35, 36, 37, 40, 45, 47, 48, 53, 54, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 67, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 207, 210
social problems 22
formulation-selection stage 25–31, 207
implementation stage 31–9, 207–8
initiation stage 21, 206–7
inverted U relationship 20–2
protective public policy process in US 19–20
speech, freedom of 52–3, 209
stalemate 26
start-up companies 24
state-corporatist systems 58, 60, 61, 210
stock market participation 77–8
subjectification 13
subsidiaries of multinational corporations (MNCs) 76–7
Costa Rica CST program and 149–50, 158–9, 160–1, 162
Sustainable Forestry Initiative 18
Sustainable Slopes Program 87–91, 105, 107, 111, 112–13, 119, 212
adoption 128
effectiveness 116, 133–9
participation 97, 99, 103–5, 107–9, 112, 113, 139–41
symbolic cooperation 34
tobacco industry 28
tourism 146–8, 161, 211
See also Certification for Sustainable Tourism, ski industry
trustees 28
unconscious unawareness 18
United States of America 2, 11, 205
coal mining 38
democratic traditions 19
forestry 60, 86
government 23
protective public policy process 9, 19–20, 206–8
formulation-selection stage 25–31, 207
implementation stage 31–9, 207–8
initiation stage 21, 206–7
inverted U relationship 20–2, 206
ski industry 86–7, 106–9, 111–13, 211
context 117–18
environmental performance 105–6
Forestry Service and 118–19
methodology of study 95–8, 122–8
results of study 99–101, 128
theory and hypotheses 91–5
See also Sustainable Slopes Program
tobacco industry 28
Venezuela 52
voluntary programs 18, 28, 87, 106, 111, 139, 148–9, 161, 185
developing countries 144
economic benefits to firms 186–7, 201–2
Certification for Sustainable Tourism 190–1, 193–200, 202–3
effectiveness 114–17
motivations for participation 113
resource-based theory of the firm and 188–9, 202
US ski industry study 91–2, 93–5, 103, 105
See also Sustainable Slopes Program
voting rights 55–7, 209
Wal-Mart 33, 34
Washington consensus 45
wealth 47, 48, 65
win-win perspective 72, 73
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