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Cambridge University Press
0521825059 - People and Wildlife - Conflict or Coexistence? - Edited by Rosie Woodroffe, Simon Thirgood and Alan Rabinowitz
Index
Index
Accipiter gentilis see goshawk
Acinonyx jubatus see cheetah
ADMADE program, Zambia 240–1, 244
Africa
conflicts over responses to crop raiding 72–4
fatal attacks
by big cats 14
by elephants 15–16
by hippopotamuses 15–16
impact of crop-raiding 24–6, 72–3
lion attacks on humans 30–2, 35
livestock losses to carnivores 17–18, 67
use of non-lethal control measures 67
African elephant (Loxodonta africana)
as focus of human–wildlife conflict 252–3
avoidance of areas of lethal control 9–10
causes of mortality 7–8
conflicts with humans, SHNR, Kenya 224–5
crop damage compared to other causes 110–11
crop-raiding and conflict with humans 24–6, 267–75
culling due to value of ivory 98–9
destruction of electric fencing 61
effectiveness as crop raiders 74
effects of crop damage on local attitudes 270–2
effects on structure of ecosystem 10–11
extractive use to offset other conflicts 149
factors influencing crop raiding 74–5
fatal attacks on humans 15–16
feasibility and costs of translocation 83–4
fragmentation of habitats 230–1
guarding and scaring to prevent crop-raiding 78–80
historical trends in killing in Kenya 358–9
human death and injury, Shimba Hills, Kenya 229–30
lethal control 3, 7–8, 75–8
mortality at edge of protected areas 8–9
population suppression impacts 7–8
problems with acoustic repellents 81
rankings as a pest 258, 259–65
reasons for continuing threat to farmers 84–5
recolonization of newly safe areas 9–10
recovery in Kenya 360–2
Selous Conservation Programme 151–2
sport hunting in Zimbabwe 144–8
threat to farmers’ livelihood 72–3
use of Capsicum repellents 82–3
use of fences and barriers to exclude 80
African lion (Panthera leo)
attacks on humans 14, 30–2, 35, 162–4
avoidance of areas of lethal control 9–10
collapse of geographic range 4–7
fencing to exclude 60–2
Laikipia Predator Project, Kenya 286–8
lethal control and population sinks 8–9
livestock losses to 17–18, 67
main diet and conservation status 50
man-killing/mauling 162–4
non-target victims of lethal control 95–8, 97
population suppression impacts 7–8
radio-collared animals, Laikipia, Kenya 288, 293–7, 296
removal from hunting quota in Botswana 241–2
safari hunting in Tanzania 151–2
selection against livestock killers 295–6
African wild dog (Lycaon pictus)
collapse of geographic range 4–7, 5
Laikipia District, Kenya 286–8
livestock losses to 17–18, 67
main diet and conservation status 50
sensitivity to edge-effect mortality 8–9
social effects of lethal control 9
Ailuropoda melanoleuca see giant panda
Alces alces see moose
Alectoris rufa see red-legged partridge
American black bear (Ursus americanus)
attacks on humans 14–15, 30–2, 39
fencing to exclude 60–2
main diet and conservation status 50
non-target victims of lethal control 95–8
rabies in 37
what to do if attacked 45–7
Amur tiger (Panthera tigris altaica)
antagonistic attitude of hunters 315, 316–17, 319–20
attacks
on domestic animals 308, 315–17, 317–18
on humans 308, 312–14
commercial value on the black market 308–10
conflicts with people 305–6
conservation in Russian Far East 305–6, 321
distribution and habitat 306–7
effects of human-caused mortality on populations 309, 310
fear of attack, and shooting by hunters 314
human-caused mortality 308–10, 319–20
lethal control of problem animals 311–12
level of perceived threat to local people 307, 309, 313
perceived competition with hunters for ungulates 319–20
responses to the human-tiger conflict 320–1
work of the Tiger Response Team 314–15
Anser albifrons flavirostris see Greenland white-fronted goose
Anser anser see greylag goose
Anser brachyrhynchus see pink-footed goose
Anser fabalis see bean goose
antelopes, rankings as pests 258, 259–65
anti-fertility measures, to control predators 55, 64–5
Aquila adalberti see Spanish Imperial eagle
Aquila audax see wedge-tailed eagle
Aquila chrysaetos see golden eagle
Aquila verreauxii see black eagle
Asia
fatal attacks by big cats 14
livestock losses to carnivores 17–18, 67
use of non-lethal control measures 67
Asian elephant (Elephas maximus)
causes of mortality 7–8
fatal attacks on humans 15–16
lethal control of 3
population suppression impacts 7–8
Asiatic black bear (Ursus thibetanus)
attacks on humans 30–2, 39
main diet and conservation status 50
Asiatic golden cat (Felis temmincki), main diet and conservation status 50
Asiatic lion (Panthera leo)
livestock losses to 67
main diet and conservation status 50
nature of attacks on humans 30–2, 35
attacks on humans see human fatalities and injuries
baboons (Papio spp.), rankings as a pest 258, 259–65
badger see European badger
barnacle goose (Branta leucopsis), populations in Scotland 176–9
bat-eared fox (Otocyon megalotis), rabies reservoirs 16–17
bean goose (Anser fabalis), population in Scotland 176–9
bears see also individual types of bear
damage to bee hives 164–5
man-killing/mauling 162–4
non-lethal control measures (North America) 66–7
provoked (defensive) attack behaviour 36–7
unprovoked (predatory) attack behaviour 37
use of Capsicum repellents 82–3
what to do if attacked 45–7
beehives
damage by bears 164–5
damage by honey badgers 164–5
electric fencing to protect 61
bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis)
population recovery in USA 340
threat from cougar predation 170–1
bird pests
acoustic repellents 81
chemical repellents 81–3
bison (Bison bison)
motives for eradication from plains 88
recovery in Yellowstone National Park 340
transmission of brucellosis pathogen 17
black-backed jackal (Canis mesomelas)
fencing to exclude 61
livestock losses to 67
main diet and conservation status 50
rabies reservoirs 16–17
use of donkeys to guard livestock against 63
black bear see American black bear; Asiatic black bear
black eagle (Aquila verreauxii)
beneficial hyrax predation 20–1
livestock losses to 20–1
black-footed ferret (Mustela nigripes)
decline due to prairie dog decline 212, 217–18
extinction in the wild 10–11
black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis)
recovery in Kenya 360–2
Selous Conservation Programme 151–2
black-tailed prairie dog (Cynomys ludovicianus)
benefits to the ecosystem 210–11
conservation decision-making process 218–21
ecology and impact on livestock production 210–11
effects of recreational shooting 211–12
effects of urban sprawl 211–12
eradication programmes 211–12
human perspectives and reasons for decline 211–12
improving management of conflict 221–3
introduction of plague (Yersinia pestis) 211
link with black-footed ferret recovery 212, 217–18
management stakeholders, social process analysis 214–18
socio-political challenges to conservation 209–10, 212
views
of agency personnel 216, 217–18
of animal rights activists 216, 217–18
of conservationists 215–16, 217–18
of Native Americans 216, 217–18
of ranchers 215, 217–18
of recreational shooters 216–18
of the American public 217
of urban developers 217
black wildebeeste (Connochaetes gnou), recovery on private land 239
blesbok (Damaliscus albifrons), recovery on private land 239
bobcat (Lynx rufus), main diet and conservation status 50
boma fencing 55, 60–2, 298–300
Bonasia bonasia see hazel grouse
Bonelli’s eagle (Hieraetus fasciatus), collapse of geographic range 4–7
Botswana
distribution of hunting benefits 242–3
regulation of low-cost hunting 246–7
removal of lion from safari hunting quota 241–2
right of community to sell quotas 245
bovine tuberculosis
control of European badgers (UK) 89
pathogen transmission from wild animals 17
Branta canadensis see Canada goose
Branta leucopsis see barnacle goose
brown (grizzly) bear (Ursus arctos)
collapse of geographic range 4–7
core protection area in Slovenia 170
effects of public hunting (Norway) 92
effects on ecosystem structure 10–11
fatal attacks on humans 14–15
fencing to exclude 60–2
impact on moose populations 21
in Norway and Sweden 323, 324, 326–30
lethal control and population sinks 8–9
livestock losses to (Europe) 18–19
main diet and conservation status 50
nature of attacks on humans 30–2, 37–8
non-lethal control measures (Europe) 65–6
non-target victims of lethal control 95–8
provoked attacks 29–33, 36–7
sensitivity to edge-effect mortality 8–9
verification of livestock loss due to 110–11
what to do if attacked 45–7
brown hyaena (Hyaena brunnea), main diet and conservation status 50
Brucella abortus (cause of brucellosis), transmission from wild animals 17
brucellosis, pathogen transmission from wild animals 17
buffalo (Syncerus caffer)
rankings as a pest 258, 259–65
recovery in Kenya 360–2
safari hunting in Tanzania 151–2
bush pig (Potamochoerus spp.)
crop-raiding 24–6, 252–3, 267–75
rankings as pests 258, 259–65
buzzard (Buteo buteo), impact on field vole populations 23
Bwindi Impenetrable National Park (Uganda) 150–1
CAMPFIRE programme, Zimbabwe 146–7, 240–1, 247–8
campsites, electric fencing to protect 61
Canada goose (Branta canadensis), population in Scotland 176–9
cane rat (Thryonomys swinderianus), rankings as a pest 258, 259–65
canids, transmission of tapeworm to humans 17
Canis aureus see golden jackal
Canis familiaris see dog
Canis latrans see coyote
Canis lupus see grey wolf
Canis lupus dingo see dingo
Canis mesomelas see black-backed jackal
Canis rufus see red wolf
Cape mountain zebra (Equus zebra zebra), recovery on private land 239
capercaillie (Tetrao urogallus), impact of predation on populations 22
Capsicum repellent systems 45, 82–3
caracal (Caracal caracal)
fencing to exclude 61
main diet and conservation status 50
use of donkeys to guard livestock against 63
caribou (Rangifer tarandus), impact of predation by carnivores 21
carnivore conservation see also predators
addressing potential conflict in protected areas 171
and compensation programmes 70–1
and wild prey availability 67, 68–71
compatible human activities 164
conflict mitigation as part of conservation strategy 373–4
conservation challenges 305
conservation in protected areas 167–8
dispersal distances 167
home range size in relation to zoning 167
hunting to reduce social conflict 172–3
in multiple-use landscapes 68–71, 167–8
integration of non-lethal controls 68–71
Norway and Sweden
conflicts in 325
differences in impacts in 326–30, 334
hunting policies in 330–3
population and distribution goals 333–4
solutions to conflicts in 334–7, 338–9
species in 323–4
predation
on game 21–2
on livestock 17–19
regional differences in extent of conflicts 164–5
sources of conflict with humans 162–4
species and regional variation in conservation status 165
species differences in extent of conflicts 164–5
tendency to avoid killing livestock 95–8
Carolina parakeet (Conuropsis carolinensis), extinction 3–4
cattle ranches 283–4
Ceratotherium simum see white rhinoceros
Cercopithecus ascanius see red-tailed monkey
Cervus elaphus see red deer
Charlemagne, Emperor, use of wolf-hunters 2–3
cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus)
collapse of geographic range 4–7
Laikipia District, Kenya 286–8
livestock losses to 67
main diet and conservation status 50
sport hunting 145, 149
use of donkeys to guard livestock against 63
Chen spp. see white geese
chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes)
crop-raiding 24–6
lethal control of 3, 9
Circus cyaneus see hen harrier
Chobe Enclave Conservation Trust, Botswana 240–1
coexistence
accepting costs of living with wildlife 405
achievability 388–9
conservation in a multi-use landscape 389
economic development and changing societal values 403–4
economic incentives to encourage tolerance 399–400
effectiveness of conflict resolution methods 395–6
importance of involvement of local people 402–3
in areas of low primary productivity 392–3
management strategies and policies to encourage 395–403
need for combination of measures 396
partitioning the landscape as alternative to 389–91
community-based conservation, limitations of 134–5
community-based tourism 123–4, 125 see also tourism
accessibility of sites 126
as a niche market 130
building on existing tourism circuit 127
criteria for commercial viability 124–8
economic and social viability 128–9
effects of non-commercial priorities 129–30
health and security issues 126, 127
importance of marketing 127
lack of access to capital 129
lack of understanding of tourism 130
limitations and trade-offs 125, 129–30
measures of success 138–9
opportunity costs of foregone activities 128
potential for unmet expectations and increased poverty 129
pricing and demand 127–8
quality of wildlife viewing experience 126–7
Torra conservancy, northern Namibia 136
uniqueness of wildlife 127
wildlife conflict costs 128
wildlife conservation costs 128
community-based tourist hunting see tourist hunting (community-based)
compensation schemes
administration costs 113–14
and carnivore conservation 70–1
and private insurance 115–16
benefits attributed to 109–10
core elements 110
evaluation of 107–8
for agricultural damage by geese 180–1
for damage by protected species 108–9
for human injury or death 112–13
for livestock depredation
Europe 65–6
India 67
funding 113–14
historical use of bounties 108
importance of prompt and fair payment 111–12
incentives and moral hazard 114–15
limitations of 399–400
more cost-effective alternatives 117–19
need to evaluate success of 116–17
negative effects
of agricultural subsidy 115
of influx of funds 115
Norway and Sweden 325–6, 329, 333, 334–7
participation of local people 113
performance payments approach 118–19
Project Snow Leopard (Pakistan) 116
summary of review 119–21
targeted 138–9
typical arrangements 108
undesirable effects 114–15
verification of damage 110–11
wolf recovery in the USA 109
conditioned taste aversion (CTA) 55, 63–4
conflict in conservation, improving conflict management processes 221–3
Connochaetes gnou see black wildebeeste
Connochaetes taurinus see wildebeeste
conservation
agencies conflict with rural populations (Africa) 72–4
and economic development 122–3
and predator removal 94–5
developing public support 222–3
distribution of costs and benefits 122–3
enforcing policies on tourist hunting 241–3
illegal hunting and local livelihood insecurity 242
improving conflict management processes 221–3
lethal control options and choices 86–7, 103–6
limitations of communal approaches 134–5
practice-based strategies (adaptive management) 222
preventing subversion of tourism benefits 134–5
recognizing both sides of a conflict 284–5
consumptive use of wildlife, and conflict mitigation 138–9
Conuropsis carolinensis see Carolina parakeet
corvids
control on grouse moors 193–4
impact of predation on small game 22
livestock losses to 20–1
cougar (Puma concolor); see also puma
effects of culling (USA) 92
fatal attacks on humans 14
geographical variation in attack frequency 40–1
management zones in North America 170–1
man-killing/mauling 162–4
nature of attacks on humans 30–2, 34–5
predation on domestic dogs 162–4
threat to bighorn sheep 170–1
what to do if attacked 45–7
coyote (Canis latrans)
effects of culling (USA) 92
fencing to exclude 55, 60–2
lethal control of 1, 3
livestock losses to 19
main diet and conservation status 50
non-lethal control measures 66–7
non-target victims of lethal control 95–8
potential to hybridize with wolves 346–7
use of anti-fertility measures to control 55, 64–5
use of donkeys to guard livestock against 63
use of llamas to guard livestock against 63
crocodile (various species), ranching for sustainable benefits 148–9
Crocuta crocuta see spotted hyaena
crop-raiding
and farmers’ vigilance 74–5
and negative attitudes towards wildlife 72–3
around Kibale National Park, Uganda 270, 271, 272
as source of conflict 24–6
by domestic livestock 110–11, 273
by threatened species 72, 73–4
collective versus individual risk strategies 256–7
conflict with rural populations (Africa) 72–4
control by fences and barriers 80
control by guarding and scaring 78–80
costs of damage 72, 272–5
differences between villages (Kibale National Park, Uganda) 272, 273
environmental impacts 74
factors affecting tolerance of 252–3
harvest zones to help reduce conflict 150–1
individual risk and landholding size 275–6
local response to, Kibale National Park, Uganda (case study) 267–75
need to devolve responsibility to farmers 84–5
perceptions of risk 252–3
predictors of risk 74–5
problem animal control (PAC) units 76–8, 84
reasons for continuing conflict 84–5
reasons for intervention failures 84
residents’ coping strategies 270–2
risk exposure and ability to cope (vulnerability) 256–7
Shimba Hills, Kenya 229–30
strategies for damage control 75–6
strategies to reduce human–wildlife conflict (Uganda) 276–7
translocation of problem animals 83–4
use of lethal control 76–8
use of non-lethal control methods 78–83
use of repellent systems 80–3
wildlife versus other pests 254–6
crow (Corvus corone), control on grouse moors 193–4
culling 88–90
as possible control measure for geese (Scotland) 179–80
European badgers and TB control (UK) 89
illegal killing of endangered species 98–9
impact on viability of populations 98–9
killing of non-target animals 95–8
reasons for short-lived effects 92, 95–8
review of programmes 91–3, 92
varying public tolerance of 100–3, 101
curlew (Numenius arquata), on heather moorland 193
Cynictis penicullata see yellow mongoose
Cynomys ludovicianus see black-tailed prairie dog
Cynomys spp. see prairie dogs
Damaliscus albifrons see blesbok
Defenders of Wildlife compensation programmes 109
democratization, and human–wildlife conflict 404
deterrents, to reduce livestock depredation 55, 63–4
Diceros bicornis see black rhinoceros
Digo (Mijikenda) people
cultural beliefs and categories of land use 227–9
effects of poor treatment by outsiders 234–5
effects of population growth 230–1
effects of Shimba Hills National Reserve on life and culture 227–9
need for empowerment of marginalized communities 237–8
need to have culture and beliefs respected 236–7
need to see benefits from Shimba Hills National Reserve 237
negative cultural view of fencing 234–5
dingo (Canis lupus dingo)
collapse of geographic range 4–7
fencing to exclude 55, 60–2
main diet and conservation status 50
population suppression impacts 7–8
zoning in Australia 168–9
disease, as factor in unprovoked attacks on humans 33
disease transmission, as cause of human–wildlife conflict 16–17
dog (Canis familiaris)
fencing to exclude 60–2
potential to hybridize with wolves 346–7
transmission of rabies to humans 16–17
donkeys, as livestock guarding animals (LGAs) 55, 63
drought, as factor in lion attacks on humans 35
Duruma people (Mijikenda) see Digo people (Mijikenda)
Dusicyon australis see Falkland Island wolf
Echinococcus multilocularis see tapeworm
economic development, and possible future conflicts 403–4
ecosystem function, impacts of human–wildlife conflict 10–11
ecotourism (wildlife tourism)
and wildlife tolerance 130–5
benefits from presence of wild geese 187–9
criteria for delivering potential benefits 124
development of ecotourism 123
effect on local attitudes to carnivores 290–3, 294
effects compared to extractive use of wildlife 153–4
ensuring that benefits help conservation 135–6, 137
potential economic and conservation benefits 123–4, 125
preventing subversion of conservation aims 134, 134–5
related to Scotland’s natural heritage 187–9
role in a broader mitigation strategy 138–9
situations where criteria for success may be met 138–9
to generate revenues for conservation 399–400
to offset depredation costs (Africa) 300–2
eland (Taurotragus oryx), recovery in Kenya 360–2
electric collar 55, 63–4
electric fencing 55, 61
costs and maintenance 80
in Shimba Hills National Reserve Kenya 231–2
use for primates and elephants 80
elephant see African elephant; Asian elephant
Elephas maximus see Asian elephant
elk (Cervus elaphus)
cost of hunting 244–5
population recovery in USA 340
endangered species
crop-raiding by 72, 73–4
lethal control
preferred form of 103–5
problem of using 1
verification of livestock loss due to 110–11
Enhydra lutris see sea otter
environmental impacts of crop loss 74
Equus burchelli see zebra
Equus zebra zebra see Cape mountain zebra
eradication campaigns 88
European badgers (Ireland) 92
grey wolf (USA) 345–6
motives for bison eradication from plains 88
possible unpredictable effects 90–1
Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx)
collapse of geographic range 4–7
conflicts over sheep and deer (Swiss Alps) 68–9, 70
fencing to exclude 60–2
in Norway and Sweden 323, 324, 326–30
livestock losses to 18–19
main diet and conservation status 50
non-lethal control measures 65–6
European badger (Meles meles)
lethal control (for bovine tuberculosis) (UK) 89, 92
non-target victims of lethal control 95–8
population suppression impacts 7–8
transmission of bovine tuberculosis pathogen 17
extinction
and behavioural responses to lethal control 9–10
due to edge mortality 8–9
due to lethal control 3–4, 75–6
due to trophic cascades 10–11
threats from human–wildlife conflict 11–12
extractive use of wildlife
as incentive for conservation 140–1
as part of a suite of conflict-reducing measures 149
balance and distribution of benefits and costs 154–60
CAMPFIRE programme, Zimbabwe 146–7, 240–1, 247–8
cropping, meat hunting and resident hunting 158–9
difficulty of implementation 160–1
distribution of costs and benefits 141–3
effects compared to wildlife tourism 153–4
effects of banning 150–3
harvest zones to help reduce conflict 150–1
hunting of problem species for meat 144–8
hunting with hounds 142–3
lack of evidence of positive results 160–1
live capture 157–8
natural product collection 156–7
political difficulties with 150–3
problem animal control 154–6
ranching 157
ranching of crocodiles 148–9
species other than problem species 149
sport hunting 144–8, 159–60
to offset costs of conflict 140–1
to offset negative attitudes towards protected areas 142–4, 145
unequal distribution of costs and benefits 160–1
Falco peregrinus see peregrine falcon
Falco rusticolus see gyrfalcon
Falkland Island wolf (Dusicyon australis), extinction 3–4
farmers, need to devolve responsibility to 84, 84–5
fear of large carnivores
as source of conflict 162–4
species variations 164–5
Felis temmincki see Asiatic golden cat
fencing
anti-predator types and uses 55, 60–2
as source of wire for snares 389–91
bomas 55, 60–2, 298–300
disruption of migration routes 390–1
electric 55, 61, 80, 231–2
fladries 55, 62
natural materials 55, 60–2
problems caused by 389–91
Shimba Hills National Reserve 224–5
to control crop-raiding 80
to partition the landscape 389–91
wire-netting 55, 60–2
field vole (Microtus agrestis), impact of buzzard predation 23
fladries 55, 62, 352
fox (Vulpes vulpes) see red fox
fur seal, lethal control of 2–3
game
competition between hunters and carnivores 162–4
losses to wild animals 21–4
game birds
effects of predation by raptors 22–4
impact of predation on populations 22
game management
and predator removal 93–5
public attitudes towards 100–3
garbage dumps, electric fencing to protect 61
geese, population levels in Scotland 177
geographic ranges, collapse due to lethal controls 4–7
giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca)
attacks on humans 39
conservation status 165
golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos)
collapse of geographic range 4–7
livestock losses to 20–1
on heather moorland 193
golden jackal (Canis aureus), main diet and conservation status 50
golden plover (Pluvialis apricaria), on heather moorland 193
goose–agriculture conflict
benefits from tourism and wildfowling 187–9
compensation schemes for farmers 180–1
co-ordinated goose management schemes 181–4
costs of management schemes 187–9, 190–1
culling as possible control measure 179–80
damage to agriculture in Scotland 177, 178
implementation of goose management schemes (Scotland) 178, 184–9
Loch of Strathbeg goose management scheme (Scotland) 178, 186
management of reserves for geese 181
national and international protection of populations 176–9
National Policy Framework (NPF) for Scotland 182–4, 190
need for flexible local solutions 181–4, 189–90
possible solutions 179–81
potential benefits from the presence of geese 187–9
public support for protection of geese 189
scaring as possible control measure 180
shooting as part of management solution 179–80
Solway Firth barnacle goose management scheme (Scotland) 178, 185
gorilla (Gorilla gorilla), reducing conflict around protected areas (Uganda) 149, 150–1
goshawk (Accipiter gentilis) 23
Greenland white-fronted goose (Anser albifrons flavirostris), population in Scotland 176–9
grey partridge (Perdix perdix) 22, 23
grey wolf (Canis lupus)
attacks
on dogs 162–4, 342–4, 350
on humans 15, 162–4, 348
collapse of geographic range 4–7, 5
compensation and recovery in the USA 109
competition with human hunters for ungulates 352–3
conflict over livestock depredations (USA) 342–4, 348–50, 351–2
conflicts over return to the Alps 69–70
conservation programmes (USA) 347–8
defensive attacks on humans 15
effects of changing social values about wildlife 355–6
effects of extirpation of prey species 340
effects of predation on ungulate populations 21, 352–3
effects on ecosystem structure 10–11
eradication benefits to Scottish sheep 90–8
extent of human-caused mortality 346
extermination campaigns (USA) 345–6
extirpation and recovery in western USA 340, 341, 342–4
fatal attacks on children 15
fear and resentment of 345–6, 348, 350, 351–2
genetic diversity in recovering populations 345
geographical variation in attack frequency 40–1
habitat in northern Rocky Mountains, USA 345
habituation and attacks on humans 30–2, 40
in Norway and Sweden 323–4, 326–30
isolated incidents of predation 91–3
livestock losses to 17–19, 67
main diet and conservation status 50
mortality at edge of protected areas 8–9
nature of attacks on humans 30–2, 39–41
non-lethal control measures 65–6
population suppression impacts 7–8
potential to hybridize with dogs and coyotes 346–7
predation on domestic dogs 162–4
predatory attacks on humans 15
preservation of wolf habitat (USA) 347
propaganda against 345–6
rabid attacks on humans 15, 162–4
rabies-influenced attacks on humans 30–2, 40, 41, 42
recolonization following translocation 91–3, 92
recovery zones in North America 169–70
restoration of ungulate prey populations 340, 347
source–sink population effects 8–9
symbolism of wolves to humans 353–5
targeted lethal control 92
tourist attraction in Yellowstone National Park 353–5
traditions of hunting 2–3
use of fladries to exclude 55, 62
use of livestock guarding dogs (LGDs) 62–3
vulnerability to dog diseases and parasites 346–7
greylag goose (Anser anser), populations in Scotland 176–9
grizzly bear see brown (grizzly) bear
ground squirrel (Spermophilus californicus), lethal control 1
grouse see hazel grouse; red grouse; willow grouse
grouse moors
assessing impact of hen harrier predation 194–200
effects on management on bird species 193–4
illegal raptor control 193–4
impact of raptor predation on shooting bags 196–200
importance for heather moorland conservation 193–4
management for shooting red grouse 193–4
possible solutions to hen harrier conflict 200–6
Guadelupe caracara (Polyborus lutosus), extinction 3–4
guarding of crops, dangers and social costs 79–80
Gulo gulo see wolverine
gyrfalcon (Falco rusticolus), impact on ptarmigan populations 23
habitat destruction
and local lack of livelihood security 242
impacts of human–wildlife conflicts 11
Haliaeetus albicilla see white-tailed eagle
hare (Lepus europaeus), hunting in Britain 142–3
harrier see also hen harrier
impact on grey partridge populations 23
harvest zones, to help reduce conflict over crop raiding 150–1
hazel grouse (Bonasia bonasia), impact of goshawk predation 23
heather moorland
conservation importance of grouse management 193–4
conservation significance of bird life 193
importance as a habitat 193
management for grouse shooting 193–4
predator control on grouse moors 193–4
hen harrier (Circus cyaneus)
assessing impact of predation on grouse 194–200
collapse of geographic range 4–7, 5
conflict with red grouse shooting 192
effects of lethal control 193–4
impact of predation on shooting bags 196–200
impact on red grouse populations 22–3
importance of heather moorland 193
influences on density and diet on moorland 195–6, 197
lethal control and population sinks 8–9
prey species 195–6
reasons for lethal control on grouse moors 194–5
hen harrier–grouse moor conflict
consequences of doing nothing 200
deadlock between hunters and conservationists 206–8
difficulties with compensation payments 200–1
diversionary feeding of harriers 201–3
habitat management 201, 203–4
lethal control to limit harrier density 204–5
modelling of management scenarios 206
modelling to find acceptable solutions 206
possible solutions 200–6
the way forward 206–8
use of combined management solutions 205–6
use of zoning and Special Protected Area (SPAs) 205–6
using predators to control harriers 203
Hieraetus fasciatus see Bonelli’s eagle
hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius) 15–16, 72–3
honey badger (Mellivora capensis)
damage to beehives 164–5
main diet and conservation status 50
human–elephant conflict 252–3
benefits from electric fencing 232–3
problems after fencing 231–2, 233–5
human fatalities and injuries
attack prevention 43–5
attacks
by African lions 30–2, 35
by American black bears 30–2, 39
by Asiatic black bears 30–2, 39
by Asiatic lions 30–2, 35
by bears 14–15
by big cats 14, 30–2, 33–6
by brown (grizzly) bears 30–2, 37–8
by cougars 30–2, 34–5
by giant pandas 39
by jaguars 30–2, 36
by leopards 30–2, 35–6
by mega-herbivores 15–16
by polar bears 30–2, 38
by sloth bears 30–2, 38–9
by spectacled bears 30–2, 39
by spotted hyaenas 30–2, 41–2
by sun bears 30–2, 39
by tigers 30–2, 33–4
by wolves 15, 30–2, 39–41, 42
due to disease 33
bear attack behaviour 36–7
challenge to understand and reduce conflict 47–8
geographical variation in frequency of attacks 40–1, 42
link with food availability 44–5
man-killing/mauling by large carnivores 162–4
need for better understanding of attacks 27–9
predatory attacks 33
provoked attacks 29–33
right-of-way attacks 33
solutions for coexistence 42–8
summary of carnivore behaviour 42
unprovoked attacks 30–2, 33
what to do if attacked 45–7
human population growth, impacts on elephants in Shimba Hills, Kenya 230–1
human social conflicts, and controversy over wildlife 162–4
human–tiger conflict
a policy framework for coexistence 385–7
compensation for livestock depredation 383–4
conflict mitigation to foster coexistence 376, 380–5
extent of conflict zones in India 376, 377–9
killing of humans and man-eating 379–380, 383
relocation of human settlements 376, 384–5
retaliatory killing over livestock depredation 376, 377–9
human–wildlife conflict
addressing conflict in conservation areas 171
and availability of wild prey 393–4
and economic development 403–4
and habitat destruction 11
and transmission of disease 16–17
and urbanization 404
and wildlife policy in Kenya 370–1
and wildlife policy reform in Kenya 360–2
areas of conflict 1–2
assessing effects of lethal control 90–8
biological information not sufficient on its own 395–6
broader view of human–biodiversity conflict 357–8
carnivores and social conflicts 172–3
causes in Kenya 360, 361
challenge to understand and reduce 47–8
challenges for biodiversity policy-making 357–8
comparing ‘worst pest’ rankings 258, 259–65
compensation schemes (summary) 119–21
competition for game animals 162–4
conflicts over access to wild prey 397–8
crop losses to wildlife versus other pests 254–6
crop-raiding 24–6
damage to lives and livelihoods 26
design of control programmes 103–6
differing human values for different species 357–8
due to fear of wild animal attacks 14, 16
due to return of carnivores 18–19
effects of democratization 404
evolution of policy in Kenya 361, 362, 363–8, 369
extinction threat for vulnerable species 11–12
factors which intensify conflict 253–4, 255
fear, dislike and social conflicts 162–4
geese and agriculture (Scotland) 176–9, 177, 178
generating revenues from wildlife 399–400
historical trends in Kenya 358–9
historical use of lethal control 86
husbandry practices and problem animals 391–2
impacts on ecosystem function 10–11
impacts on wild ecosystems 11–12
importance of involvement of local people 402–3
improving conflict management processes 221–3
in multiple-use landscapes 68–71
incorporating mitigation into national policy 371–2
life and culture of indigenous peoples 227–9
limitations of compensation 399–400
livestock depredation 20–1, 162–4
man-killing/mauling 162–4
modelling conflict solutions 283–4
need for combination of measures 396
opportunity for contact as predictor 391–2
patchy distribution of conflicts 391
patterns and predictors 391–5
possibility of coexistence 405
possible role of lethal control 398–9
predation on domestic dogs 162–4
predation on game 21–4
predation on livestock 17–21
predators and human hunters 21–4
primary productivity level as predictor 392–3
problems caused by protectionist legislation 400–2
rabies reservoirs 16–17
reasons for continuing conflict 84–5
reasons for intervention failures 84
recognising both sides 284–5
resentment of legal protection of wildlife 400–2
role of tourism in a mitigation strategy 138–9
Shimba Hills National Reserve, Kenya 224–5
socioecological factors 252–3
technical solutions 396–9
urban–rural divide 404
use of traditional approaches 396–7
with recovering wildlife populations 394–5
human–wildlife interactions
dangers of feeding 44–5
negative aspects for humans 13
positive aspects for humans 13
humans, vulnerability of early hominids 27–9
hunters
competition with carnivores over game 162–4
conflict with endangered raptors 22–4
hunting see also safari hunting; sport hunting; tourist hunting; trophy hunting
as incentive for conservation 142–3
by the public 90
costs and effectiveness as control measure 76–8
cropping, meat hunting and resident hunting 158–9
impact on moose populations 21
of problem species for meat 144–8
to reduce social conflict over carnivores 172–3
traditional use of snares (Africa) 247–8
trophy and meat hunting (Tanzania) 151–2
wildfowling benefits from wild geese (Scotland) 187–9
hunting, public
and tolerance of damage by wild game 100–3, 101
benefits and problems 105
for non-threatened species 105
impact on viability of populations 99
killing of non-target animals 95–8
potential problems 92, 95
reasons for short-lived effects 92, 95–8
review of programmes 91–3, 92
varying public tolerance of 100–3
Hyaena brunnea see brown hyaena
Hyaena hyaena see striped hyaena
hyaenas, fencing to exclude 60–2 see also brown hyaena; spotted hyaena; striped hyaena
Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus), conservation status 165
India
deaths from rabies 16–17
fatal attacks
by bears 14–15
by big cats 14
by elephants 15–16
wolves 15
leopard attacks on humans 30–2, 35–6
tiger
as flagship species for biodiversity protection 373–4
attacks on humans 30–2, 33–4
conflict mitigation as part of conservation strategy 373–4
habitat loss and fragmentation 374–5, 376
insurance schemes 138–9
jackal (Canis mesomelas) see black-backed jackal
jaguar (Panthera onca)
addressing ranchers’ concerns 283–4
collapse of geographic range 4–7
effects of shortage of wild prey 279–80
factors affecting livestock depredation 279–80
main diet and conservation status 50
nature of attacks on humans 30–2
negative perceptions from ranchers 281, 283
ongoing conflict over livestock depredation 278, 279, 280
protection from hunting 279
recognizing both sides of the conflict 284–5
survey of status and distribution 281
threat from hunting 280
Kenya
bushmeat trade 286
causes of human–wildlife conflict 360, 361
causes of reduction in predator numbers 286
historical trends in human–wildlife conflict 358–9
human–wildlife conflict and wildlife policy 360–2, 370–1
Laikipia Predator Project 286–8
mitigation of human–wildlife conflict 360–2
Kenya human–wildlife conflict policy
1977 Wildlife Policy 363–5
1994 review and public debate 365–7
1997 Wildlife Policy
framework 367–8
in practice 361, 362, 368–70, 369
withdrawal of in 1998 370
evolution 361, 362, 363–8, 369
measures of success of 361, 362, 368–70
Kibale National Park, Uganda
amount and distribution of crop damage 270, 271, 272
crop damage differences between villages 272, 273
effects of crop-raiding on local attitudes 275–6
local response to crop damage (case study) 267–75
residents’ strategies for coping with crop damage 270–2
strategies to reduce human–wildlife conflict 276–7
variable and localized nature of crop raiding 275–6
Komodo dragon (Varanus komodoensis), costs and benefits of park-based tourism 131–2
lagomorphs, impact of predation on populations 22
Lagopus lagopus see willow grouse
Lagopus lagopus scoticus see red grouse
Lagopus mutus see ptarmigan
Laikipia Predator Project (Kenya) 286–8
Lama glama see llama
legal protection of threatened wildlife 400–2
leopard (Panthera pardus)
culling due to value of skins 98–9
fencing to exclude 61
Laikipia District, Kenya 286–8
livestock losses to 17–18, 67
main diet and conservation status 50
man-killing/mauling 162–4
nature of attacks on humans 30–2, 35–6
predation on domestic dogs 162–4
safari hunting in Tanzania 151–2
Lepus europaeus see hare
Lepus timidus see mountain hare
lethal control
and collapse of geographic ranges 4–7, 5
and species extinctions 3–4
behavioural responses to 9–10
costs and effectiveness against crop raiding 76–8
criteria for evaluation of effects 87
culling programmes 88–90
current population impacts 7–10
effectiveness on reducing threats 90–8
effects on non-target protected species 11–12, 77
endangered species 1, 103–5
eradication campaigns 88
European badgers (UK) 89
for game management 93–5
for livestock protection 94–5
historical use of 2–3, 3–7, 86
impact of illegal killing 98–9
impact on viability of populations 98–9
improving accuracy of selective removal 104–5
indirect effects on population density 9
large-scale population suppression 7–8
need to reduce killing of problem wildlife 11–12
non-target mortality 95–8, 97
numbers of animals killed (USA) 87–90
options and choices in wildlife management 103–6
outcomes for different species 75–6
possible role in conservation programmes 86–7, 398–9
possible unpredictable effects of eradication 90–1
problem tigers 381
public hunting 90
resilient pest species 1
review of various removal programmes 91–3, 92
selective removal 90
social effects on group viability 9
source–sink population dynamics 8–9
threat to large carnivores 49–54
traditional and innovative methods 3
types of removal programmes 87–90
varying public attitudes towards 100–3
lion see African lion; Asiatic lion
live capture, as extractive use of wildlife 157–8
livestock
losses to rabies 16–17
pathogen transmission from wild animals 17
livestock depredation
and availability of wild prey 67, 297–8
and carnivore conservation 68–71
and drought 297–8
anti-fertility measures to control predators 55, 64–5
as source of conflict 162–4
carnivores’ tendency to avoid killing livestock 95–8
compensation schemes
in Europe 65–6
in Norway and Sweden 325–6, 329, 333, 334–7
conflict with the grey wolf (USA) 342–4, 348–50, 351–2
costs of predation by carnivores 17–19
guarding by shepherds 54–60
impact on local people’s livelihoods 290–3, 294
non-lethal control measures 65–7
patterns for different predators 288–9, 290
reindeer in Norway and Sweden 325
review of preventive measures 54–65
sheep in Norway and Sweden 325
technical solutions 298–300
translocation of problem animals 55, 65
use of anti-predator fencing 55, 60–2
use of bomas (night-time corrals) 55, 60–2, 298–300
use of deterrents and repellents 55, 63–4
use of lethal control 49–54
ways to offset the costs 300–2
worldwide losses to carnivores 49–54
zootechnical preventive methods 54–60
livestock guarding animals (LGAs) 55, 62–3
livestock guarding dogs (LGDs) 55, 62–3
livestock protection collars 55, 63–4
llama (Lama glama), as livestock guarding animals (LGAs) 55, 63
Loxodonta africana see African elephant
Lutra lutra see otter (European)
Lycaon pictus see African wild dog
Lynx lynx see Eurasian lynx
Lynx pardinus see Iberian lynx
Lynx rufus see bobcat
macaques, lethal control of crop-raiders (Japan) 78
man-killing see human fatalities and injuries
Martes martes see pine marten
Masai Mara National Reserve, Kenya, distribution of costs and benefits 133–4
Masai pastoralists, conflict with wildebeeste 11
mega-herbivores, fatal attacks on humans 15–16
Meles meles see European badger
Mellivora capensis see honey badger
Melursus ursinus see sloth bear
Mephitis mephitis see striped skunk
Microtus agrestis see field vole
migration routes, disruption by fencing 390–1
mink (Mustela vison), hunting in Britain 142–3
monkeys (including baboons), rankings as pests 258, 259–65
moose (Alces alces)
destruction of electric fencing 61
impact of predation by carnivores 21
population recovery in USA 340
mountain hare (Lepus timidus), impact of predation on populations 22
mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus), population recovery in USA 340
multiple-use landscapes
conservation of carnivores 68–71, 167–8
use of zoning 167–8
Mustela erminea see stoat
Mustela nigripes see black-footed ferret
Mustela vison see mink
Mycobacterium bovis (cause of bovine tuberculosis), transmission from wild animals 17
Namibia, distribution of hunting benefits 242–3
Native Americans, ownership of tourist hunting enterprises 244–5
natural fencing 55, 60–2
natural product collection 156–7
non-lethal control techniques
and carnivore conservation 68–71
to reduce depredation 54–65
websites with additional information 60
non-target mortality (lethal control) 95–8
improving selective removal techniques 104–5
North America
attacks
by bears 14–15
by wolves 15
impact of predators on moose and caribou 21
livestock losses to predators 66–7
use of non-lethal control measures 66–7
Norway
land use policies and subsidies 325–6, 338–9
large carnivore species 323–4
Numenius arquata see curlew
Odocoileus hemionus see mule deer
Odocoileus virginianus see white-tailed deer
olive baboon (Papio cynocephalus), crop raiding 24–6, 267–75
orang utan (Pongo pygmaeus), lethal control of 2–3
Otocyon megalotis see bat-eared fox
otter (European) (Lutra lutra), main diet and conservation status 50
Ovis aries see sheep
Ovis canadensis see bighorn sheep
Pan troglodytes see chimpanzee
Panthera leo see African lion; Asiatic lion
Panthera onca see jaguar
Panthera pardus see leopard
Panthera tigris see tiger
Panthera tigris altaica see Amur tiger
Papio cynocephalus see olive baboon
Papio spp. see baboons
Perdix perdix see grey partridge
peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus)
impact on red grouse populations 22–3
lethal control of 2–3
on heather moorland 193
performance payments, instead of compensation schemes 118–19
pheasant (Phasianus colchicus), impact of goshawk predation 23
pine marten (Martes martes), impact of predation on small game 22
pink-footed goose (Anser brachyrhynchus), population in Scotland 176–9
Pluvialis apricaria see golden plover
poaching, as cause of elephant mortality 7–8
polar bear (Ursus maritimus)
cost of hunting 244–5
fatal attacks on humans 14–15
fencing to exclude 60–2
nature of attacks on humans 30–2, 38
provoked attacks 29–33
Polyborus lutosus see Guadelupe caracara
Pongo pygmaeus see orang utan
population density, indirect effects of lethal control 9
population levels, source–sink dynamics 8–9
population suppression, due to lethal control 7–8
population viability, impact of lethal control 98–9
Potamochoerus spp.see bush pig
prairie dogs (Cynomys spp.) see also black-tailed prairie dog
collapse of geographic range 4–7
lethal control of 2–3
trophic cascade caused by local eradication 10–11
predator removal
for game management 93–5
for livestock protection 94–5
predators see also carnivore conservation
effects on vertebrate prey populations 21–4
factors affecting tolerance of 302–3
impacts of local people on (Laikipia, Kenya) 293–7
translocation of problem animals 55, 65
use of anti-fertility measures 55, 64–5
use of deterrents and repellents 55, 63–4
primates
crop-raiding by 7–8, 267–75
effectiveness as crop-raiders 74
feasibility and costs of translocation 83–4
guarding and scaring to prevent crop-raiding 78–80
inducing taste aversion in crop-raiders 81–3
predator avoidance behaviour 27–9
reasons for continuing threat to farmers 84–5
threat to farmers’ livelihood 72–3
use and effectiveness of lethal control 76–8
use of Capsicum repellents 82–3
use of fences and barriers to exclude 80
problem animal control
as cause of elephant mortality 7–8
dealing with endangered species 103–5
hunting for meat 144–8
selective removal 90
sport hunting 144–8
translocation 83–4
Problem Animal Control (PAC) units 76–8, 84
Procyon lotor see racoon
Project Snow Leopard (Pakistan) 116
protected areas
edge-effect mortality 8–9
harvest zones to help reduce conflict (Uganda) 150–1
source–sink population dynamics 8–9
utility in conserving large carnivores 167–8
protected species, effects of non-specific lethal controls 77
ptarmigan (Lagopus mutus), impact of gyrfalcon predation 23
public opinion
and design of control programmes 103–6
levels of acceptance of zoning 172–3
protection versus use of wildlife 100–3
support for protection of geese (Scotland) 189
varying acceptability of lethal control 100–3
puma (puma concolor) see also cougar
main diet and conservation status 50
non-lethal control measures 66–7
Puma concolor see cougar; puma
Quelea quelea see red-billed quelea
rabies
in bears 37
livestock losses to 16–17
risk from wolf attacks 162–4
rabies reservoirs, and human–wildlife conflicts 16–17
racoon (Procyon lotor), rabies reservoirs 16–17
ranching
as extractive use of wildlife 157
of crocodiles 148–9
range collapses, due to lethal control 4–7, 5
Rangifer tarandus see caribou; reindeer
raptors
collapse of geographic ranges 4–7, 5
illegal killing of 98–9, 193–4
impacts of lethal control 4–7, 5, 194
livestock losses to 20–1
predation on game 22–4
recolonization following translocation (grey wolf) 91–3, 92
red-billed quelea (Quelea quelea), lethal control 1, 75–6
red deer (Cervus elaphus), hunting in Britain 142–3, 144–8
red fox (Vulpes vulpes)
control on grouse moors 193–4
effects of culling (UK) 92
hunting in Britain 142–3
impact of predation on small game 22
non-lethal control measures 65–6
population suppression impacts 7–8
rabies reservoirs 16–17
use of anti-fertility measures to control 55, 64–5
use of donkeys to guard livestock against 63
use of llamas to guard livestock against 63
red grouse (Lagopus lagopus scoticus) see also grouse moors
assessing impact of hen harrier predation 194–200
hen harrier impact on grouse shooting 192
impact of raptor predation 22–3
importance of heather moorland 193
moorland management for shooting 193–4
red-legged partridge (Alectoris rufa), impact of goshawk predation 23
red wolf (Canis rufus)
collapse of geographic range 4–7
main diet and conservation status 50
red-tailed monkey (Cercopithecus ascanius), crop-raiding by 24–6, 267–75
reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) (semi-domestic)
impacts of carnivore depredation 162–4
losses to carnivores in Norway and Sweden 18–19, 326–30, 334, 337, 338–9
reindeer husbandry
carnivores in conflict with Saami people 325
Norway and Sweden 325–6, 337
repellent systems
acoustic 81
Capsicum repellents 82–3
chemical 81–3
to control crop-raiding 80–3
to reduce livestock depredation 55, 63–4
visual 81
reserves, edge-effect mortality 8–9
rhinoceros see black rhinoceros; white rhinoceros
river otter (Lutra lutra), non-lethal control measures 65–6
rodents, rankings as pests 258, 259–65
rural heritage, commitment to preserve 404
safari hunting see also hunting; sport hunting; tourist hunting; trophy hunting
government role in supporting conservation 244
need for involvement in rural development 250
responsibilities of government 250
revenue from private game ranches 240
revenues generated worldwide 239
sources of income 239
Tanzania 151–2
threat from corruption 250
wildlife conservation on private ranches 239
sea otter (Enhydra lutris), role in structure of marine communities 10–11
selective (targeted) control
non-target mortality 95–8
review of programmes 91–3
selective (targeted) removal
avoiding non-target mortality 104–5
for endangered species 103–5
impact on viability of populations 99
improving accuracy 104–5
of problem animals 90
varying public attitudes towards 101, 102–3
Selous Game Reserve (Tanzania) 151–2
sheep (Ovis aries) in Norway and Sweden 325–6, 334, 335–6, 338–9
sheep-farming, zoning of dingoes in Australia 168–9
shepherding of livestock
integration with other measures 65–6
to prevent depredation 54–60, 55, 62–3
with livestock guarding dogs (LGDs) 55, 62–3
Shimba Hills National Reserve (SHNR), Kenya
and the culture of indigenous peoples 43–5, 224–5
baboon crop-raiders 234–5
biodiversity and conservation importance 224–5
description and history 225–7
effects of elephant overpopulation 229–35
effects on life and culture of Digo people 227–9
electric fencing 231–4
human–elephant conflicts 224–5, 226
need for empowerment of marginalized communities 237–8
need for indigenous peoples to see benefits from 237
need to incorporate indigenous culture and beliefs 236–7
problems caused by presence of fencing 234–5
survival issues related to the fence project 236
threat from habitat destruction 234–5
sloth bear (Melursus ursinus), attacks on humans 14–15, 30–2, 38–9
snaring 247–8, 389–91
snow leopard (Uncia uncia)
compensation payments for kills 116
lethal control of 2–3
livestock losses to 17–18, 67
main diet and conservation status 50
social conflict
and carnivore conservation 172–3
due to zoning and protected areas 172–3
wolves in Norway 172–3
source–sink population dynamics 8–9
South Africa, extent of private game ranches 239, 240
Spanish Imperial eagle (Aquila adalberti), collapse of geographic range 4–7
spectacled bear (Tremarctos ornatus)
attacks on humans 30–2, 39
main diet and conservation status 50
Spermophilus californicus see ground squirrel
sport hunting see also hunting; safari hunting; tourist hunting; trophy hunting
CAMPFIRE in Zimbabwe 146–7
cheetahs on Namibian farmland 145
distribution of benefits and costs 159–60
of problem species 144–8
opportunities to offset conflicts 159–60
to generate revenues for conservation 399–400
to offset depredation costs (Africa) 300–2
spotted hyaena (Crocuta crocuta)
frequency of attacks on humans 30–2, 41
Laikipia District, Kenya 286–8
livestock losses to 17–18, 67
main diet and conservation status 50
nature of attacks on humans 30–2, 41–2
stoat (Mustela erminea), control on grouse moors 193–4
striped hyaena (Hyaena hyaena)
Laikipia District, Kenya 286–8
livestock losses to 67
main diet and conservation status 50
striped skunk (Mephitis mephitis), rabies reservoirs 16–17
sun bear, attacks on humans 30–2, 39
Sweden
land use policies and subsidies 325–6, 338–9
large carnivore species 323–4
Syncerus caffer see buffalo
Tanzania, over-hunting in concessions 241–2
tapeworm (Echinococcus multilocularis), human transmission by canids 17
taste aversion, to control crop raiding primates 81–3
Taurotragus oryx see eland
Tetrao urogallus see capercaillie
Thryonomys swinderianus see cane rat
thylacine (marsupial wolf) (Thylacinus cynocephalus), extinction 3–4
tiger (Panthera tigris) see also Amur tiger; human–tiger conflict
capture and removal of problem tigers 382
conflict mitigation as part of conservation strategy 373–4
distribution of populations in India 376, 377–9
fatal attacks on humans 14
guarding and barriers to protect livestock 383
historical mass slaughter policy in India 375
illegal killing in India 150–3
lethal control of problem tigers 381
livestock losses to 67
loss and fragmentation of habitat in India 374–5, 376
main diet and conservation status 50
man-killing/mauling 162–4
nature of attacks on humans 30–2, 33–4
non-lethal aversive conditioning 383
potential habitat in India 376, 377–9
problems associated with translocation 382
protection and hunting ban in 1970s 376–7
threats to populations in India 373–4
tolerance of wildlife
and distribution of costs and benefits 131, 131–2
and perceived linkages with tourism benefits 132–4
factors shaping local attitudes 266–7
improving among individuals 130–5
socioecological factors shaping local support 252–3
tourism, wildlife see ecotourism
tourism ventures
accessibility of sites 126
building on existing tourism circuit 127
criteria for commercial viability 124–8
distribution of costs and benefits 131, 131–2
economic and social viability 128–9
health and security issues 126, 127
importance of marketing 127
opportunity costs of foregone activities 128
potential for unmet expectations and increased poverty 129
pricing and demand 127–8
quality of wildlife viewing experience 126–7
uniqueness of wildlife 127
wildlife conflict costs 128
wildlife conservation costs 128
tourist hunting see also hunting; safari hunting; sport hunting; trophy hunting
adverse effects of low-cost non-safari hunts 246–7
benefits of employing local hunters 246
conservation programmes supported by 244
need for certification of conservation standards 245–6, 250–1
need for international agreements to support conservation 245–6, 250–1
tourist hunting (community-based)
addressing local livelihood insecurity 242
ambiguity of ownership and incentives for communities 239–40
and state ownership of wildlife 239–40
community ownership of hunting enterprise 244–5
constraints for success on community (or customary) land 239–40
different user-right models 244–5
distribution of benefits to communities 242–3
distribution of costs and benefits to communities 239–40
economic incentives for communities 239–41
enforcing policies which support conservation 241–3
government controls 239–40
government role in supporting conservation 244
illegal hunting and lack of food security 248
incentives to stop using snares 247–8
investing in local hunters 249
investing in local needs 248
joint-ventures with the private sector 245
linking benefits with community effort 242
payment of producer fees for key species 247–8
policies to reduce illegal hunting 247–8
potential for corruption 243–4
revenue investment strategies, (Zambia) 248–50
risks for local community ventures 241–3
supporting local poultry production 249–50
training local poachers for alternative livelihoods 249
use of snaring to meet local food needs 248
Toxoplasma gondii (protozoan pathogen), human transmission by felids 17
translocation of problem animals 55, 65
feasibility and costs 83–4
recolonization following (grey wolf) 91–3
tigers in India 382
Tremarctos ornatus see spectacled bear
trophic cascades, impacts of human–wildlife conflict 10–11
trophy hunting 300–2 see also hunting; safari hunting; sport hunting; tourist hunting
urban–rural divide on human–wildlife conflict 404
Uncia uncia see snow leopard
Ursus americanus see American black bear
Ursus arctos see brown (grizzly) bear
Ursus maritimus see polar bear
Ursus thibetanus see Asiatic black bear
Varanus komodoensis see Komodo dragon
Vulpes vulpes see red fox
websites, information on non-lethal control techniques 60
wedge-tailed eagle (Aquila audax), livestock losses to 20–1
white geese (Chen spp.), culling in North America 179–80
white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum), recovery on private land 239
white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus)
tolerance of damage caused by 266–7
population recovery in USA 340
white-tailed eagle (Haliaeetus albicilla)
collapse of geographic range 4–7
livestock losses to 20–1
wild pigs (Africa), threat to farmers’ livelihood 72–3
wildebeeste (Connochaetes taurinus), habitat destruction by humans 11
wildlife
illegal use and lack of livelihood security 242
state ownership 239–40, 245
wildlife attacks on humans see human fatalities and injuries
willow grouse (Lagopus lagopus)
impact of goshawk predation 23
impact of predation on populations 22
wire-netting fencing 55, 60–2
wolf see grey wolf; red wolf
wolverine (Gulo gulo)
conflicts within a conservation area (Norway) 171
conservation by performance payments (Sweden) 118–19
effects of public hunting (Norway) 92
in Norway and Sweden 323, 324, 326–30
livestock losses to 18–19
main diet and conservation status 50
non-lethal control measures 65–6
yellow mongoose (Cynictis penicullata), rabies reservoirs 16–17
Yellowstone National Park, public interest in wolves 353–5
Zambia, temporary ban on tourist hunting 241–2
zebra (Equus burchelli), recovery in Kenya 360–2; see also Cape mountain zebra
zoning
addressing potential conflict in carnivore zones 171
advantages and disadvantages 174
and size of carnivores’ home ranges 167
as alternative to coexistence 389–91
avoiding increase in social conflict 172–3
carnivore conservation in multi-use landscapes 167–8
diversity of public opinion 175
forms and goals 162
levels of public acceptance 172–3
methods of implementation 165–6
technical challenges 174–5
zoning of large carnivores
brown bear core protection area, Slovenia 170
cougar management, North America 170–1
dingoes, Australia 168–9
social conflict over wolves, Norway 172–3
wolf recovery zones, North America 169–70
wolverine conservation area, Norway 171
zoonotic diseases of humans, and conflicts with wildlife 16–17
zootechnical methods, to prevent livestock depredation 54–60, 55
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