Hostname: page-component-848d4c4894-75dct Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-05-17T12:38:10.343Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

On Mammalian Taphonomy, Taxonomic Diversity, and Measuring Subsistence Data in Zooarchaeology

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 January 2017

Dave N. Schmitt  and
Karen D. Lupo
Dave N. Schmitt
Affiliation:
Antiquities Section, Division of State History, 300 Rio Grande, Salt Lake City, UT 84101
Karen D. Lupo
Affiliation:
Department of Anthropology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84112
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

This paper examines the application of mammalian taxonomic diversity measures in the analysis of human subsistence. Employing qualitative and quantitative taphonomic analyses on archaeofaunas recovered from a sheltered Fremont site in Utah, numerous small- and medium-sized animal bones (especially Leporidae) are identified as nonhuman accumulations. Measures of taxonomic diversity for the shelter’s entire assemblage suggest that the inhabitants practiced a generalized, broad-spectrum subsistence strategy. Omitting the nonhuman accumulations and calculating similar measures on bones interpreted as human refuse produce a different portrait of subsistence practices. Using this investigation as a case study, mammalian faunal assemblages from six additional Fremont assemblages are examined to further demonstrate that subsistence inferences based on diversity measures should be approached with caution. We demonstrate that measures of taxonomic diversity are valuable tools but should be used in concert with analyses of taphonomic agents. Furthermore, rather than employing only those bones identified to species, we emphasize that specimens identified to taxonomic genera may offer adequate resolution in examining prehistoric diet breadth.

Resumen

Resumen

Este ensayo examinará la aplicación de las medidas de la taxonómica mamífera en el análisis de la subsistencia humana. Empleará los análisis tafonómicos cualitativos y cuantitativos de las arquaofaunas recuperadas en Utah. El lugar en donde se encontraron estas arquaofaunas es uno de los Fremont yfue en un sitio que estaba simpre protegido de al intemperie. Se identifican como acumulaciones no humanos los numerosos huesos de animates (especialmente los Leporinos), que son huesos pequeños y de tamano mediano. Las medidas de diversidad taxonomíca para el poblado en su totalidad que vivia en el sitio sugieren que los habitantes utilizaban una estrategia generalizada y de un espectro amplio para la subsistencia. Al omitir las acumulaciones no humanos, y al calcular medidas similares sobre los huesos que están interpretados como desperdicios humanos, nos produce una representación bastante diferente de las costumbres para lo de la subsistencia. Al utilizar estas examinaciones como un caso de investigación, se estudian la presencia mamífera y las abundancias de seis poblados adicionales de los Fremont. De esta forma se muestra la forma en que las inferencias de subsistencia, basadas en las medidas de diversidad, se debe dirigirse con cautela. Se muestra que las medidas de la diversidad taxonómica son herramientas valiosas, pero no que se deben utilizar a menos que se midan e identifiquen los factores tafonómicos. Además, en lugar de sólo emplear los huesos identificados a ciertas especies, nostros ponemos énfasis en que los especímenes identificados a sus géneros taxonómicos ofrescan una solución adecuada para examinar la extensión de la dieta prehistórica.

Type
Reports
Information
American Antiquity , Volume 60 , Issue 3 , July 1995 , pp. 496 - 514
Copyright
Copyright © The Society for American Archaeology 1995

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

References Cited

Aikens, C. M. 1967 Excavations at Snake Rock Village and Bear River No. 2 Site. Anthropological Papers No. 87. University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City.Google Scholar
Andrews, P. 1990 Owls, Caves and Fossils. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.Google Scholar
Andrews, P., and Evans, E. M. N. 1983 Small Mammal Bone Accumulations Produced by Mammalian Carnivores. Paleobiology 9 : 289–307.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Binford, L. R. 1978 Nunamiut Ethnoarchaeology. Academic Press, New York City.Google Scholar
Binford, L. R. 1981 Bones : Ancient Men and Modern Myths. Academic Press, New York City.Google Scholar
Bocek, B. 1986 Rodent Ecology and Burrowing Behavior : Predicted Effects on Archaeological Site Formation. American Antiquity 51 : 589–603.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brain, C. K. 1981 The Hunter's or the Hunted? An Introduction to African Cave Taphonomy. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.Google Scholar
Broughton, J. M. 1994 Late Holocene Resource Intensification in the Sacramento Valley, California : The Vertebrate Evidence. Journal of Archaeological Science 21 : 501–514.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brown, B. A., Whitaker, J. O., French, T. W., and Maser, C. 1986 Note on the Food Habits of the Screech Owl and Burrowing Owl of Southeastern Oregon. Great Basin Naturalist 46 : 421–426.Google Scholar
Butler, V L. 1993 Natural Versus Cultural Salmonid Remains : Origin of the Dalles Roadcut Bones, Columbia River, Oregon, U. S. A. Journal of Archaeological Science 20 : 1–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Casteel, R. W. 1977 Characterization of Faunal Assemblages and the Minimum Number of Individuals Determined from Paired Elements : Continuing Problems in Archaeology. Journal of Archaeological Science 4 : 125–134.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dansie, A., and Ringkob, T. 1979 Faunal Analysis of the Glendale Site Assemblage. In The Archaeology of the Glendale Site (26Wa2065), edited by Miller, M. M. and Elston, R. G., pp. 184–220. Nevada Archaeological Survey, Reno. Submitted to the Nevada Department of Highways. Copies available from the Nevada Department of Transportation, Carson City.Google Scholar
Drews, M. P., and Schmitt, D. N. 1986 Other Prehistoric Artifacts. In The Archaeology of the Vista Site (26Wa3017), edited by Zeier, C. D. and Elston, R. G., pp. 283–310. Intermountain Research, Silver City, Nevada. Submitted to the Environmental Services Section, Nevada Department of Transportation. Copies available from the Nevada Department of Transportation, Carson City.Google Scholar
Fernandez-Jalvo, Y, and Andrews, P. 1992 Small Mammal Taphonomy of Gran Dolina, Atapuerca (Burgos), Spain. Journal of Archaeological Science 19 : 407–128.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fowler, C. S. 1986 Subsistence. In Great Basin, edited by D' Azevedo, W. L., pp. 64–97. Handbook of North American Indians, vol. 11, Sturtevant, W. C., general editor. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C. Google Scholar
Fowler, C. S. 1989 Willard Z. Park's Ethnographic Notes on the Northern Paiute of Western Nevada, 1933-1944, Vol. 1. Anthropological Papers No. 114. University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City.Google Scholar
Fowler, C. S. 1992 In the Shadow of Fox Peak. An Ethnography of the Cattail-Eater Northern Paiute People of Stillwater Marsh. Cultural Resource Series No. 5. U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Fallon, Nevada.Google Scholar
Gamble, C. 1985 Review of Quantitative Zooarchaeology : Topics in the Analysis of Archaeological Faunas, by D. K. Grayson. Journal of Archaeological Science 12 : 403–104.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grayson, D. K. 1979 On the Quantification of Vertebrate Archae of aunas. In Advances in Archaeological Method and Theory, vol. 2, edited by Schiffer, M. B., pp. 199–237. Academic Press, New York City.Google Scholar
Grayson, D. K. 1981 The Effects of Sample Size on Some Derived Measures in Vertebrate Faunal Analysis. Journal of Archaeological Science 8 : 115–121.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grayson, D. K. 1983 The Paleontology of Gatecliff Shelter : Small Mammals. In The Archaeology of Monitor Valley : 2. Gatecliff Shelter, edited by Thomas, D. H., pp. 99–126. Anthropological Papers Vol. 59, Pt. 1. American Museum of Natural History, New York City.Google Scholar
Grayson, D. K. 1984 Quantitative Zooarchaeology : Topics in the Analysis of Archaeological Faunas. Academic Press, Orlando, Florida.Google Scholar
Grayson, D. K. 1988 Danger Cave, Last Supper Cave, and Hanging Rock Shelter : The Faunas. Anthropological Papers Vol. 66, Pt. 1. American Museum of Natural History, New York City.Google Scholar
Grayson, D. K. 1990 The James Creek Shelter Mammals. In The Archaeology of James Creek Shelter, edited by Elston, R. G. and Budy, E. E., pp. 87–103. Anthropological Papers No. 115. University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City.Google Scholar
Grayson, D. K. 1991 Alpine Faunas from the White Mountains, California : Adaptive Change in the Late Prehistoric Great Basin? Journal of Archaeological Science 18 : 483–506.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hall, E. R. 1981 The Mammals of North America. 2nd ed. John Wiley and Sons, New York City.Google Scholar
Hockett, B. S. 1989 Burned Bones in Woodrat Nests from Northwestern Nevada. Current Research in the Pleistocene 6 : 41–43.Google Scholar
Hockett, B. S. 1991 Toward Distinguishing Human and Raptor Patterning on Leporid Bones. American Antiquity 56 : 667–679.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hockett, B. S. 1993 Taphonomy of the Leporid Bones from Hogup Cave, Utah : Implications for Cultural Continuity in the Eastern Great Basin. Unpublished Ph. D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Nevada, Reno.Google Scholar
Hockett, B. S. 1994 A Descriptive Reanalysis of the Leporid Bones from Hogup Cave, Utah. Journal of California and Great Basin Anthropology 16 : 106–117.Google Scholar
Hull, K. L. 1994 Obsidian Studies. In Kern River Pipeline Cultural Resources Data Recovery Report : Utah, Spaulding, W. G., senior editor, pp. 7-1–7-63. Submitted by Dames and Moore to the Kern River Gas Transmission Company, Salt Lake City. Copies available from Dames and Moore, Las Vegas, Nevada.Google Scholar
Janetski, J. C. 1990a Wetlands in Utah Valley Prehistory. In Wetland Adaptations in the Great Basin, edited by Janetski, J. C. and Madsen, D. B., pp. 233–257. Museum of Peoples and Cultures Occasional Papers No. 1. Brigham Young University, Provo.Google Scholar
Janetski, J. C. 1990b Utah Lake : Its Role in the Prehistory of Utah Valley. Utah Historical Quarterly 58 : 5–31.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jennings, J. D. 1957 Danger Cave. Anthropological Papers No. 27. University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City.Google Scholar
Jones, K. T. 1983 Foraging Archaeology : The Ache of Eastern Paraguay. In Carnivores, Human Scavengers and Predators : A Question of Bone Technology, edited by Lemoine, G. M. and S, A.. Mac, Eachern, pp. 171–191. Archaeological Association, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta.Google Scholar
Jones, K. T. 1984 Hunting and Scavenging by Early Hominids : A Study in Archaeological Method and Theory. Unpublished Ph. D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City.Google Scholar
Klippel, W. E., Snyder, L. M., and Parmalee, P. W. 1987 Taphonomy and Archaeologically Recovered Mammal Bone from Southeast Missouri. Journal of Ethnobiology 7 : 155–169.Google Scholar
Leonard, R. D., and Jones, G. T. (editors) 1989 Quantifying Diversity in Archaeology. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Livingston, S. D. 1989 The Taphonomic Interpretation of Avian Skeletal Part Frequencies. Journal of Archaeological Science 16 : 537–547.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lipman, P. W, Rowley, P. D., Mehnert, H. H., Evans, S. H. Jr., , Nash, W. P., and Brown, F. H. 1978 Pleistocene Rhyolite of the Mineral Mountains, Utah— Geothermal and Archaeological Significance. U. S. Geological Survey Journal of Research 6 : 133–147.Google Scholar
Lupo, K. D. 1989 A Comparative Analysis of Carnivore Bone Modification. Paper presented at the 54th Annual Meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, Atlanta, Georgia.Google Scholar
Lupo, K. D. 1990 Bone Assemblage Diversity and Taphonomic Traces : Some Considerations for Late Prehistoric Wetlands Subsistence. Paper presented at the 22nd Great Basin Anthropological Conference, Reno, Nevada.Google Scholar
Lupo, K. D. 1993 Small Faunal Assemblages from the Willard Bay Sites. In Archaeological Test Excavations in the Great Salt Lake Wetlands and Associated Analyses, . Weber and Box Elder Counties, Utah, edited by Fawcett, W. B. and Simms, S. R., pp. 197–215. Contributions to Anthropology No. 14. Utah State University, Logan.Google Scholar
Lupo, K. D. 1995 Hadza Bone Assemblages and Hyena Attrition : An Ethnographic Example of the Influence of Cooking and Mode of Discard on the Intensity of Scavenger Ravaging. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology, in press.Google Scholar
Lyman, R. L. 1979 Faunal Analysis : An Outline of Method and Theory with Some Suggestions. Northwest Anthropological Research Notes 13 : 22–35.Google Scholar
Lyman, R. L. 1982 Archae of aunas and Subsistence Studies. In Advances in Archaeological Method and Theory, vol. 5, edited by Schiffer, M. B., pp. 357–403. Academic Press, New York City.Google Scholar
Lyman, R. L. 1984 Broken Bones, Bone Expediency Tools, and Bone Pseudotools : Lessons from the Blast Zone Around Mount St. Helens, Washington. American Antiquity 49 : 315–333.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lyman, R. L. 1989 Taphonomy of Cervids Killed by the May 18 Google Scholar
Lyman, R. L. 1980, Volcanic Eruption of Mount St. Helens, Washington, U. S. A. In Bone Modification, edited by Bonnichsen, R. and Sorg, M., pp. 149–167. Center for the Study of the First Americans, University of Maine, Orono.Google Scholar
Lyman, R. L. 1994a Vertebrate Taphonomy. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lyman, R. L. 1994b Relative Abundances of Skeletal Specimens and Taphonomic Analysis of Vertebrate Remains. Palaios 9 : 288–298.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lyman, R. L., Houghton, L. E., and Chambers, A. L. 1992 The Effect of Structural Density on Marmot Skeletal Part Representation in Archaeological Sites. Journal of Archaeological Science 19 : 557–573.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mac Cracken, J. G., and Hansen, R. M. 1987 Coyote Feeding Strategies in Southeastern Idaho : Optimal Foraging by an Opportunistic Predator? Journal of Wildlife Management 51 : 278–285.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Madsen, D. B. 1979 The Fremont and the Sevier : Defining Prehistoric Agriculturalists North of the Anasazi. American Antiquity 44 : 711–722.Google Scholar
Madsen, D. B. 1982 Get It Where the Gettin's Good : A Variable Model of Great Basin Subsistence and Settlement Based on Data from the Eastern Great Basin. In Man and Environment in the Great Basin, edited by Madsen, D. B. and F, J.. Connell, O., pp. 207–226. SAA Papers No. 2. Society for American Archaeology, Washington, D. C. Google Scholar
Madsen, D. B. 1989 Exploring the Fremont. Utah Museum of Natural History, University of Utah, Salt Lake City.Google Scholar
Madsen, D. B., and Lindsay, L. W 1977 Backhoe Village. Antiquities Section Selected Papers No. 12. Utah Division of State History, Salt Lake City.Google Scholar
Marshall, F., and Pilgram, T. 1993 NISP vs. MNI in Quantification of Body-Part Representation. American Antiquity 58 : 261–269.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marti, C. D. 1988 A Long-Term study of Food-Niche Dynamics in the Common Barn-Owl : Comparisons Within and Between Populations. Canadian Journal of Zoology 66 : 1803–1812.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marwitt, J. P. 1968 Pharo Village. Anthropological Papers No. 91. University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City.Google Scholar
Marwitt, J. P. 1970 Median Village and Fremont Culture Regional Variation. Anthropological Papers No. 95. University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City.Google Scholar
Marwitt, J. P. 1986 Fremont Cultures. In Great Basin, edited by D' Azevedo, W. L., pp. 161–172. Handbook of North American Indians, vol. 11, Sturtevant, W. C., general editor. Smithsonian Institution, Washington.Google Scholar
Meltzer, D. C., D. J., Leonard, R. D., and Stratton, S. K. 1992 The Relationship Between Sample Size and Diversity in Archaeological Assemblages. Journal of Archaeological Science 19 : 375–388.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nilsson, E. 1994 Lithic Procurement and Technology. In Kern River Pipeline Cultural Resources Data Recovery Report : Utah, Spaulding, W. G., senior editor, pp. 31-1–31-21. Submitted by Dames and Moore to the Kern River Gas Transmission Company, Salt Lake City. Copies available from Dames and Moore, Las Vegas, Nevada.Google Scholar
Payne, S. 1983 Bones from Cave Sites : Who Ate What? Problems and a Case Study. In Animals and Archaeology : I. Hunters and Their Prey, edited by Clutton-Brock, J. and Grigson, C., pp. 149–162. BAR International Series 163. British Archaeological Reports, Oxford.Google Scholar
Pielou, E. C. 1975 Ecological Diversity. John Wiley and Sons, New York City.Google Scholar
Plog, S., and Hegmon, M. 1993 The Sample Size-Richness Relation : The Relevance of Research Questions, Sampling Strategies, and Behavioral Variation. American Antiquity 58 : 489–496.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rensberger, J. M., and Krentz, H. B. 1988 Microscopic Effects of Predator Digestion on the Surfaces of Bones and Teeth. Scanning Microscopy 2 : 1541–1551.Google ScholarPubMed
Rhode, D. 1988 Measurement of Archaeological Diversity and the Sample-Size Effect. American Antiquity 53 : 708–716.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ringrose, T. J. 1993 Bone Counts and Statistics : A Critique. Journal of Archaeological Science 20 : 121–157.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schmitt, D. N. 1988 Some Observations on Vertebrate Taphonomy and Site Formational Processes in Stillwater Marsh. In Preliminary Investigations in Stillwater Marsh : Human Prehistory and Geoarchaeology, edited by Raven, C. and Elston, R. G., pp. 359–372. Cultural Resource Series No. 1. U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Portland, Oregon.Google Scholar
Schmitt, D. N. 1990 Bone Artifacts and Human Remains. In The Archaeology of James Creek Shelter, edited by Elston, R. G. and Budy, E. E., pp. 117–127. Anthropological Papers No. 115. University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City.Google Scholar
Schmitt, D. N. 1993 Great Basin Taphonomy, Human Subsistence and Taxonomic Diversity : A View from Rock Shelter, Southwestern Utah. Paper presented at the 58th Annual Meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, St. Louis, Missouri.Google Scholar
Schmitt, D. N., Ingbar, E. E., and Raven, C. 1992 Subsistence. In Archaeological Investigations at Tosawihi, A Great Basin Quarry, Part 1 : The Periphery, edited by Elston, R. G. and Raven, C., pp. 623–636. Intermountain Research, Silver City, Nevada. Copies available from the Bureau of Land Management, Elko, Nevada.Google Scholar
Schmitt, D. N., and Juell, K. E. 1994 Toward the Identification of Carnivore Scatological Faunal Accumulations in Archaeological Contexts. Journal of Archaeological Science 21 : 249–262.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schmitt, D. N., and Lupo, K. D. 1994 Zooarchaeological Analysis of Selected Sites. In Kern River Pipeline Cultural Resources Data Recovery Report : Utah, Spaulding, W G., senior editor, pp. 11-1–11-66. Submitted by Dames and Moore to the Kern River Gas Transmission Company, Salt Lake City. Copies available from Dames and Moore, Las Vegas, Nevada.Google Scholar
Shaffer, B. S. 1992 Interpretation of Gopher Remains from Southwestern Archaeological Assemblages. American Antiquity 57 : 683–691.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sharp, N. D. 1989 Redefining Fremont Subsistence. Utah Archaeology 2 : 19–31.Google Scholar
Sharp, N. D. 1992 Fremont Farmers and Hunters : Faunal Resource Exploitation at Nawthis Village, Central Utah. Unpublished Ph. D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Washington, Seattle.Google Scholar
Sharrock, F. W, and Marwitt, J. P. 1967 Excavations at Nephi, Utah, 1965-1966. Anthropological Papers No. 88. University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City.Google Scholar
Shipman, P., Foster, G., and Schoeninger, M. 1984 Burnt Bones and Teeth : An Experimental Study of Color, Morphology, Crystal Structure and Shrinkage. Journal of Archaeological Science 11 : 307–325.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Simms, S. R. 1986 New Evidence for Fremont Adaptive Diversity. Journal of California and Great Basin Anthropology 8 : 204–216.Google Scholar
Simms, S. R. 1987 Behavioral Ecology and Hunter-Gatherer Foraging : An Example from the Great Basin. BAR International Series 381. British Archaeological Reports, Oxford.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Simms, S. R. 1990 Fremont Transitions. Utah Archaeology 3 : 1–18.Google Scholar
Simms, S. R., Loveland, C. J., and Stuart, M. E. 1991 Prehistoric Human Skeletal Remains and the Prehistory of the Great Salt Lake Wetlands. Contributions to Anthropology No. 6. Utah State University, Logan.Google Scholar
Simonetti, J. A., and Cornejo, L. E. 1991 Archaeological Evidence of Rodent Consumption in Central Chile. Latin American Antiquity 2 : 92–96.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, D. G., Wilson, C. R., and Frost, H. H. 1972 Seasonal Food Habits of Barn Owls in Utah. Great Basin Naturalist 32 : 229–234.Google Scholar
Sobolik, K. D. 1993 Direct Evidence for the Importance of Small Animals to Prehistoric Diets : A Review of Coprolite Studies. North American Archaeologist 14 : 227–244.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Spaulding, W. G., Carambelas, K. R., Schmitt, D. N., and Nelson, J. S. 1994 Archaeology of the Pinnacle Pass Segment. In Kern River Pipeline Cultural Resources Data Recovery Report : Utah, Spaulding, W G., senior editor, pp. 20-1–20-59. Submitted by Dames and Moore to the Kern River Gas Transmission Company, Salt Lake City. Copies available from Dames and Moore, Las Vegas, Nevada.Google Scholar
Stahl, P. W. 1982 On Small Mammal Remains in Archaeological Context. American Antiquity 47 : 822–829.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Steward, J. H. 1938 Basin-Plateau Aboriginal Sociopolitical Groups. Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 120. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C. Google Scholar
Stewart, O. C. 1942 Culture Element Distributions : XVIII, Ute-Southern Paiute. University of California Anthropological Records 6(4) : 231–355. Berkeley.Google Scholar
Stiner, M. C. 1993 Small Animal Exploitation and Its Relation to Hunting, Scavenging, and Gathering in the Italian Mousterian. In Hunting and Animal Exploitation in the Later Palaeolithic and Mesolithic of Eurasia, edited by Peterkin, G. L., Bricker, H. M., Mellars, and P., pp. 107–125. Archeological Papers No. 4. American Anthropological Association, Washington, D. C. Google Scholar
Stiner, M. C. 1994 Honor Among Thieves : A Zooarchaeological Study of Neandertal Ecology. Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey.Google Scholar
Thomas, D. H. 1969 Great Basin Hunting Patterns : A Quantitative Method for Treating Faunal Remains. American Antiquity 34 : 392–401.Google Scholar
Thomas, D. H. 1983 The Archaeology of Monitor Valley : 2. Gatecliff Shelter. Anthropological Papers Vol. 59, Pt. 1. American Museum of Natural History, New York City.Google Scholar
Yellen, J. E. 1991 Small Mammals : !Kung San Utilization and the Production of Faunal Assemblages. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 10 : 1–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zeveloff, S. I. 1988 Mammals of the Intermountain West. University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City.Google Scholar