Hostname: page-component-848d4c4894-ndmmz Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-06-13T08:13:26.491Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Assessment of welfare from physiological and behavioural responses of New Zealand dairy cows exposed to cold and wet conditions

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  11 January 2023

JR Webster ,
M Stewart ,
AR Rogers  and
GA Verkerk
JR Webster*
Affiliation:
Animal Behaviour & Welfare, AgResearch Ltd, Private Bag 3123, Hamilton, New Zealand
M Stewart
Affiliation:
Animal Behaviour & Welfare, AgResearch Ltd, Private Bag 3123, Hamilton, New Zealand
AR Rogers
Affiliation:
Animal Behaviour & Welfare, AgResearch Ltd, Private Bag 3123, Hamilton, New Zealand
GA Verkerk
Affiliation:
Dexcel Ltd, Private Bag 3221, Hamilton, New Zealand
*
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints: jim.webster@agresearch.co.nz
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

There is a need to assess the welfare of dairy cows that live outdoors under cold and wet conditions. This study combined a number of techniques to measure stress and make an assessment of welfare in this situation. Two groups of ten non-pregnant, non-lactating Holstein Friesian cows were exposed to a week of wind and rain (WR) or housed indoors (I) with pre- and post-treatment weeks indoors in a cross-over design. Wind and rain consisted of continual air movement (7.1 kph) using fans, water sprinkling for 15 min (3.0 mm) per hour, a mean temperature of 3.4°C and wind chill of –0.3°C. Internal body temperature was recorded every ten min and behaviour for 16 h per day. Blood, faeces and infrared temperatures were sampled at 0800h each morning during treatment weeks, and three times per week during pre- and post-treatment weeks. All cows were challenged with 2 ml Leptoshield Vaccine (CSL Animal Health, Australia) subcutaneously after 3 days of cold exposure to test immune responses. During WR, cows spent a greater proportion of time standing and less time lying down and eating than during I. Infrared temperatures were lower during WR than I in both dorsal and orbital (eye) regions. There was a distinct diurnal pattern of internal body temperature which had a greater amplitude during WR than I resulting from both a lower minimum and a higher maximum. The time of the minimum was 40 min later for WR than I. The overall mean body temperature was 0.07°C higher in WR than I. There were greater increases in plasma and faecal cortisol during WR than I, respectively. Total T4 was higher during WR than I. Non-esterified fatty acid concentration was higher in the week following WR than I. Total white blood cell numbers were lower during WR than I. No treatment differences were found for creatine kinase or for tumour necrosis factor, heat shock protein 90, interleukin 6 or interferon gamma expression in response to vaccination. In conclusion, this study applied a suite of stress measures to dairy cows exposed to extreme cold and wet conditions. Together, these measures indicated activation of the stress axis, physiological and behavioural adaptations to cold and a reduction in welfare. A number of these measures could be used to assess welfare under cold conditions on farms.

Keywords

adaptationanimal welfarebehaviourcolddairy cowsstress
Type
Articles
Information
Animal Welfare , Volume 17 , Issue 1 , February 2008 , pp. 19 - 26
Copyright
© 2008 Universities Federation for Animal Welfare

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Ames, DR and Insley, LW 1975 Wind-chill effect for cattle and sheep. Journal of Animal Science 40: 161–165CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Anderson, BH, Watson, DL and Colditz, IG 1999 The effect of dexamethasone on some immunological parameters in cattle. Veterinary Research Communications 23: 399–413CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bergen, RD, Kennedy, AD and Christopherson, RJ 2001 Effects of intermittent cold exposure varying in intensity on core body temperature and resting heat production of beef cattle. Canadian Journal of Animal Science 81: 459–465CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berry, RJ, Kennedy, AD, Scott, SL, Kyle, BL and Schaefer, AL 2003 Daily variation in the udder surface temperature of dairy cows measured by infrared thermography: Potential for mastitis detection. Canadian Journal of Animal Science 83: 687–693CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beverlin, SK, Havstad, KM, Ayers, EL and Petersen, MK 1989 Forage intake responses to winter cold exposure of free-ranging beef cows. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 23: 75–85CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bitman, J, Lefcourt, A, Wood, DL and Stroud, B 1984 Circadian and ultradian temperature rhythms of lactating dairy cows. Journal of Dairy Science 67: 1014–1023CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Broucek, J, Kovalcik, K, Gajdosík, D, Sottník, J and Brestensky, V 1987 Effect of extreme environmental temperatures on the haematological and biochemical values of heifers. Veterinární Medicína 32: 259–268Google Scholar
Christopherson, RJ, Gonyou, HW and Thompson, JR 1979 Effects of temperature and feed intake on plasma concentration of thyroid hormones in beef cattle. Canadian Journal of Animal Science 59: 655–661CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clark, CEF, Fulkerson, WJ, Nandra, KS, Barchia, I and Macmillan, KL 2005 The use of indicators to assess the degree of mobilisation of body reserves in dairy cows in early lactation on a pasture-based diet. Livestock Production Science 94: 199CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cook, NJ, Church, JS, Schaefer, AL, Webster, JR, Matthews, LR and Suttie, JM 2005 Stress and pain assessment of velvet antler removal from Elk (Cervus elaphus canadensis) and Reindeer (Rangifer tarandus). Online Journal of Veterinary Research 9: 24–36Google Scholar
Cook, NJ, Schaefer, AL, Warren, L, Burwash, L, Anderson, M and Baron, V 2001 Adrenocortical and metabolic responses to ACTH injection in horses: An assessment by salivary cortisol and infrared thermography of the eye. Canadian Journal of Animal Science 81: 621Google Scholar
Coppola, CL, Collier, RJ and Enns, RM 2002 Evaluation of thermal status of cattle using infrared thermography. Journal of Animal Science 80: 133Google Scholar
Dunn, RW, Havstad, KM and Ayers, EL 1988 Grazing behavior responses of rangeland beef cows to winter ambient temperatures and age. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 21: 201–208CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ekpe, ED and Christopherson, RJ 2000 Metabolic and endocrine responses to cold and feed restriction in ruminants. Canadian Journal of Animal Science 80: 87–95CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ellis, T, Bradley, A, Watson, F, Elliott, K, Smith, G, McGrath, M and Dolling, M 1985 Protection of recently shorn sheep against adverse weather using plastic coats. Australian Veterinary Journal 62: 213–218CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fisher, AD, Verkerk, GA, Morrow, CJ and Matthews, LR 2001 The effects of feed restriction and lying deprivation on pituitary - adrenal axis regulation in lactating cows. Livestock Production Science 73: 255–263CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fisher, AD, Verkerk, GA, Morrow, CJ and Matthews, LR 2002 The effects of feed restriction and lying deprivation on pituitary-adrenal axis regulation in lactating cows. Livestock Production Science 73: 255–263CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fisher, AD, Verkerk, GA, Stevenson, RA, Wesselink, E, Morrow, CJ and Matthews, LR 1999 The effects of stressors on lymphocyte populations and function in lactating dairy cows. In: Proceedings of the New Zealand Society of Animal Production pp 195-197. 28 June-1 July 1999. Hamilton, New ZealandGoogle Scholar
Fujita, H, Matsuoka, S, Takahashi, J, Suzuki, T and Fujita, T 1982 Changes in metabolism and productive performance of lactating dairy cows in cold environments. Research Bulletin of Obihiro University Series I 12: 323–329Google Scholar
Gonyou, HW, Christopherson, RJ and Young, BA 1979 Effects of cold temperature and winter conditions on some aspects of behaviour of feedlot cattle. Applied Animal Ethology 5: 113–124CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gregory, N 1995 The role of shelterbelts in protecting livestock: a review. New Zealand Journal of Agricultural Research 38: 423–450CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hemsworth, PH, Barnett, JL, Beveridge, L and Matthews, LR 1995 The welfare of extensively managed dairy cattle: A review. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 42: 161–182CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hopster, H, van der Werf, JT and Blokhuis, HJ 1998 Stress enhanced reduction in peripheral blood lymphocyte numbers in dairy cows during endotoxin-induced mastitis. Veterinary Immunology and Immunopathology 66: 83–97CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Horton, GM 1981 Responses of shorn and full-fleeced lambs given two levels of feed intake and exposed to warm and cold temperatures. American Journal of Veterinary Research 42: 2151–2154Google ScholarPubMed
Ireland, N, Kalkoff, M, Cursons, RT and Sleigh, J 2004 mRNA expression of multiple mediators in leukocytes from elective surgical orthopaedic patients. Anesthesiology and Intensive Care 32: 188–195CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jensen, MB, Pedersen, LJ and Munksgaard, L 2005 The effect of reward duration on demand functions for rest in dairy heifers and lying requirements as measured by demand functions. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 90: 207–217CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kehrli, ME, Burton, JL, Nonnecke, BJ and Lee, EK 1999 Effects of stress on leukocyte trafficking and immune responses: implications for vaccination. Advances in Veterinary Medicine 41: 61–81CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kelley, KW, Greenfield, RE, Evermann, JF and Parish, SM 1980 Immunosuppression in calves caused by heat and cold stress. Journal of Animal Science 51: 147Google Scholar
Kennedy, PM, Young, BA and Christopherson, RJ 1977 Studies on the relationship between thyroid function, cold acclimation and retention time of digesta in sheep. Journal of Animal Science 45: 1084–1090CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kennedy, PM 1985 Influences of cold exposure on digestion of organic matter, rates of passage of digesta in the gastrointestinal tract, and feeding and rumination behaviour in sheep given four forage diets in the chopped, or ground and pelleted form. British Journal of Nutrition 53: 159–173CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kennedy, AD, Bergen, RD, Christopherson, RJ, Glover, ND and Small, JA 2005 Effect of once daily 5-h or 10-h cold exposures on body temperatures and resting heat production of beef cattle. Canadian Journal of Animal Science 85: 177–183CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Knížková, I, Kunc, P, Koubkova, M, Flusser, J and Dolezal, O 2002 Evaluation of naturally ventilated dairy barn management by a thermographic method. Livestock Production Science 77: 349–353CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Krohn, CC and Munksgaard, L 1993 Behaviour of dairy cows kept in extensive (loose housing/pasture) or intensive (tie stall) environments II. Lying and lying-down behaviour. Applied Animal Science 37: 1–16CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ladewig, J and Smidt, D 1989 Behavior, episodic secretion of cortisol, and adrenocortical reactivity in bulls subjected to tethering. Hormones and Behavior 23: 344–360CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lefcourt, AM and Adams, WR 1996 Radiotelemetry measurement of body temperatures of feedlot steers during summer. Journal of Animal Science 74: 2633–2640CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lefcourt, AM and Adams, WR 1998 Radiotelemetric measurement of body temperature in feedlot steers during winter. Journal of Animal Science 76: 1830–1837CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lefebvre, HP, Laroute, V, Braun, JP, Lassourd, V and Toutain, PL 1996 Non-invasive and quantitative evaluation of post-injection muscle damage by pharmacokinetic analysis of creatine kinase release. Veterinary Research 27: 343Google ScholarPubMed
Malechek, JC and Smith, BM 1976 Behavior of range cows in response to winter weather. Journal of Range Management 29: 9–12CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meerlo, P, Sgoifo, A and Turek, FW 2002 The effects of social defeat and other stressors on the expression of circadian rhythms. Stress 5: 15–22CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Morrow, CJ, Kolver, ES, Verkerk, GA and Matthews, LR 2002 Faecal glucocorticoid metabolites as a measure of adrenal activity in dairy cattle. General and Comparative Endocrinology 126: 229–241CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Munksgaard, L, Ingvartsen, KL, Pedersen, LJ and Nielsen, VKM 1999 Deprivation of lying down affects behaviour and pituitary-adrenal axis responses in young bulls. Acta Agriculturae Scandinavica Section A Animal Science 49: 172–178Google Scholar
Murata, H, Takahashi, H and Matsumoto, H 1987 The effects of road transportation on peripheral blood lymphocyte subpopulations, lymphocyte blastogenesis and neutrophil function in calves. British Veterinary Journal 143: 166–174CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Orskov, ER and MacLeod, NA 1990 Dietary-induced thermogenesis and feed evaluation in ruminants. The Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 49: 227–237CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pfaffl, MW 2001 A new mathematical model for relative quantification in real-time RT-PCR. Nucleic Acids Research 29: e45CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Piccione, G, Caola, G and Refinetti, R 2003 Daily and estrous rhythmicity of body temperature in domestic cattle. BMC Physiology 3: 7CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Prescott, ML, Havstad, KM, Ayers, EL and Petersen, MK 1994 Grazing behavior of free-ranging beef cows to initial and prolonged exposure to fluctuating thermal environments. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 39: 103–113CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Redbo, I, Ehrlemark, A and Redbo, TP 2001 Behavioural responses to climatic demands of dairy heifers housed outdoors. Canadian Journal of Animal Science 81: 9–15CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Refinetti, R and Menaker, M 1992 The circadian rhythm of body temperature. Physiology & Behavior 51: 613–637CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schwartzkopf-Genswein, KS, Atwood, S and McAllister, TA 2002 Relationships between bunk attendance, intake and performance of steers and heifers on varying feeding regimes. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 76: 179–188CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Scott, SL and Christopherson, RJ 1993 The effect of cold adaptation on kinetics of insulin and growth hormone in heifers. Canadian Journal of Animal Science 73: 33–47CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stewart, M, Webster, JR, Schaefer, AL, Cook, NJ and Scott, SL 2005 Infrared thermography as a non-invasive tool to study animal welfare. Animal Welfare 14: 319–325Google Scholar
Tarrant, PV, Kenny, FJ, Harrington, D and Murphy, M 1992 Long distance transportation of steers to slaughter: effect of stocking density on physiology, behaviour and carcass quality. Livestock Production Science 30: 223–238CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Webster, AJF 1974 Heat loss from cattle with particular emphasis on the effects of cold. In: Monteith, JL and Mount, LE (eds) Heat loss from animals and man pp 205–231. Butterworths: London, UKCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Young, BA 1975 Temperature-induced changes in metabolism and body weight of cattle (Bos taurus). Canadian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology 53: 947–953CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zahner, M, Schrader, L, Hauser, R, Keck, M, Langhans, W and Wechsler, B 2004 The influence of climatic conditions on physiological and behavioural parameters in dairy cows kept in open stables. Animal Science (Penicuik) 78: 139–147CrossRefGoogle Scholar