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Global Conjunctures and the Remaking of European Political History

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  19 September 2022

Sebastian Conrad
Sebastian Conrad*
Affiliation:
Freie Universität Berlinsebastian.conrad@fu-berlin.de
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Abstract

Over the past decades, the writing of European history—in both its incarnations, as the history of Europe, and as the histories of nations in Europe—has seen fundamental transformations. Though it has been adapted in different ways, the global turn has deeply affected the historiography produced in many European countries. On the one hand, crucial watersheds of European history have been reinterpreted as part of larger configurations, and as responses to global challenges. On the other, it is now clear that Europe’s claim to unity and cohesion was reinforced, not least, by observers from without. In the late nineteenth century, in societies across Latin America, Africa, and Asia, contemporaries began to refer to a “Europe” that was less a specific location than a product of the imagination; the result less of geography or culture than of global geopolitics. What emerges, then, is an understanding of the history of the continent that places it firmly in the context of global conjunctures and repeated moments of re-territorialization.

Résumé

Résumé

Au cours des dernières décennies, l’écriture de l’histoire européenne – qu’il s’agisse de l’histoire del’Europe ou de celle des pays d’Europe – a connu des transformations fondamentales. Le tournant global, bien qu’il ait été adapté de différentes manières, a profondément affecté l’historiographie produite dans de nombreux pays européens. D’une part, des moments charnières de l’histoire européenne ont été réinterprétés comme parties prenantes de configurations plus larges et comme réponses aux défis mondiaux. D’autre part, il est désormais clair que la prétention de l’Europe à l’unité et à la cohésion a été renforcée notamment par des observateurs extérieurs. À la fin du xixe siècle, dans les sociétés d’Amérique latine, d’Afrique et d’Asie, les contemporains ont commencé à se référer à une « Europe » qui était moins un lieu spécifique qu’un produit de l’imagination, autrement dit : qui résultait moins de la géographie ou de la culture que de la géopolitique mondiale. Il ressort de tout cela une compréhension de l’histoire du continent qui ancre fermement celui-ci dans le contexte de conjonctures mondiales et de moments répétés de re-territorialisation.

Type
Research Article
Information
Annales. Histoire, Sciences Sociales - English Edition , First View , pp. 1 - 14
Copyright
© Éditions de l’EHESS 2022

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References

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2 Examples include John M. Headley, The Europeanization of the World: On the Origins of Human Rights and Democracy (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2008); Anthony Pagden, Worlds at War: The 2,500-Year Struggle between East and West (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008); Heinrich August Winkler, Geschichte des Westens. Von den Anfängen in der Antike bis zum 20. Jahrhundert (Munich: C. H. Beck, 2009); Toby E. Huff, Intellectual Curiosity and the Scientific Revolution: A Global Perspective (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010); and Ricardo Duchesne, The Uniqueness of Western Civilization (Leiden: Brill, 2011).

3 These studies were however still firmly focused on Europe; see Heinz-Gerhard Haupt and Jürgen Kocka, eds., Comparative and Transnational History: Central European Approaches and New Perspectives (New York: Berghahn Books, 2009); Deborah A. Cohen and Maura O’Connor, eds., Comparison and History: Europe in Cross-National Perspective (New York: Routledge, 2004); and Heinz-Gerhard Haupt and Jürgen Kocka, eds., Geschichte und Vergleich. Ansätze und Ergebnisse international vergleichender Geschichtsschreibung (Frankfurt: Campus, 1996).

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10 Andrea Giardina, during the roundtable “Storia mondiale dell’Italia,” Rome, November 30, 2017, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bVMnkmMccxQ&t=1343s. Giardina goes on to affirm that “Italy is an extraordinary country, much better than it is usually represented” (quote at 22:10). The roundtable discusses Andrea Giardina, ed., Storia mondiale dell’Italia (Bari: Laterza, 2017).

11 See the debate about Patrick Boucheron, ed., Histoire mondiale de la France (Paris: Éd. du Seuil, 2017), discussed in more detail in David Motadel’s introduction to this special issue of the Annales: David Motadel, “Globalizing Europe: European History after the Global Turn,” Annales HSS (English Edition) 76, no. 4 (2021): doi:10.1017/ahsse.2022.2.

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16 Eric Hobsbawm, Nations and Nationalism since 1780: Programme, Myth, Reality (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 151.

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19 Michael Goebel, Anti-Imperial Metropolis: Interwar Paris and the Seeds of Third World Nationalism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015). See also Jennifer Anne Boittin, Colonial Metropolis: The Urban Grounds of Anti-Imperialism and Feminism in Interwar Paris (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2010); Noor-Aiman I. Khan, Egyptian-Indian Nationalist Collaboration and the British Empire (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011); Nathanael Kuck, “Anticolonialism in a Post-Imperial Environment: The Case of Berlin, 1914–1933,” Journal of Contemporary History 49, no. 1 (2014): 134–59; Marc Matera, Black London: The Imperial Metropolis and Decolonization in the Twentieth Century (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2015); Daniel Brückenhaus, Policing Transnational Protest: Liberal Imperialism and the Surveillance of Anticolonialists in Europe, 1905–1945 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2017).

20 Gauri Viswanathan, Masks of Conquest: Literary Study and British Rule in India (New York: Columbia University Press, 1989); Susan Buck-Morss, “Hegel and Haiti,” Critical Inquiry 26, no. 4 (2000): 821–65.

21 Catherine Hall, Civilising Subjects: Colony and Metropole in the English Imagination, 1830–1867 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2002).

22 Rifāʿa Rāfiʿ al-Ṭahṭāwī, An Imam in Paris: Account of a Stay in France by an Egyptian Cleric (1826–1831), trans. Daniel L. Newman (London: Saqi Books, 2004); William G. Beasley, Japan Encounters the Barbarian: Japanese Travellers in America and Europe (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1995); Roxanne L. Euben, Journeys to the Other Shore: Muslim and Western Travelers in Search of Knowledge (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2006); C. A. Bayly, “Rammohan Roy and the Advent of Constitutional Liberalism in India, 1800–30,” Modern Intellectual History 4, no. 1 (2007): 25–41; David Motadel, “The German Other: Nasir al-Din Shah’s Perceptions of Difference and Gender during his Visits to Germany, 1873–1889,” Iranian Studies 44, no. 4 (2011): 563–79; Naghmeh Sohrabi, Taken for Wonder: Nineteenth-Century Travel Accounts from Iran to Europe (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012); Nile Green, The Love of Strangers: What Six Muslims Learned in Jane Austen’s London (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2016).

23 Dipesh Chakrabarty, Provincializing Europe: Postcolonial Thought and Historical Difference (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2000), 23.

24 See “Beyond Hegemony? ‘Europe’ and the Politics of Non-Western Elites, 1900–1930,” special issue, Journal of Modern European History 4, no. 2 (2006).

25 Chakrabarty, Provincializing Europe; James G. Carrier, Occidentalism: Images of the West (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1995).

26 Cited in Christopher Benfey, The Great Wave: Gilded Age Misfits, Japanese Eccentrics, and the Opening of Old Japan (New York: Random House, 2003), 85.

27 J. G. A. Pocock, “Deconstructing Europe,” History of European Ideas 18, no. 3 (1994): 329–45.

28 Manuel Borutta, Antikatholizismus. Deutschland und Italien im Zeitalter der europäischen Kulturkämpfe (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2010), 49–61. See also Christopher Clark and Wolfram Kaiser, eds., Culture Wars: Secular-Catholic Conflict in Nineteenth-Century Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003) for the emergence of discourses about the “two Spains,” the “two Italies,” etc.

29 Larry Wolff, Inventing Eastern Europe: The Map of Civilization on the Mind of the Enlightenment (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1994); Maria Todorova, Imagining the Balkans (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997).

30 Michael Broers, The Napoleonic Empire in Italy, 1796–1814: Cultural Imperialism in a European Context? (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005); Mark Mazower, Hitler’s Empire: How the Nazis Ruled Europe (London: Penguin, 2008); Shelley Baranowski, Nazi Empire: German Colonialism and Imperialism from Bismarck to Hitler (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010); Jan Zielonka, Europe as Empire: The Nature of the Enlarged European Union (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006); Gary Marks, “Europe and its Empires: From Rome to the European Union,” Journal of Common Market Studies 50, no. 1 (2012): 1–20; Hartmut Behr and Yannis A. Stivachtis, eds., Revisiting the European Union as Empire (London: Routledge, 2015).

31 For a related argument, see Sebastian Conrad and Prasenjit Duara, Viewing Regionalisms from East Asia (Washington, DC: American Historical Association, 2013).

32 Nile Green, “Spacetime and the Muslim Journey West: Industrial Communications in the Making of the ‘Muslim World’,” American Historical Review 118, no. 2 (2013): 401–29, here p. 406.

33 Mark Bassin, “Asia,” in The Cambridge Companion to Modern Russian Culture, ed. Nicholas Rzhevsky (1998; Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012), 65–93, here p. 79.

34 Quoted in Roumen Daskalov, “Modern Bulgarian Society and Culture through the Mirror of Bai Ganio,” Slavic Review 60, no. 3 (2001): 530–49, here p. 536.

35 Quoted in Urs Matthias Zachmann, “Blowing Up a Double Portrait in Black and White: The Concept of Asia in the Writings of Fukuzawa Yukichi and Okakura Tenshin,” Positions: East Asia Cultures Critique 15, no. 2 (2007): 345–68, here p. 347.

36 Fukuzawa Yukichi, “On De-Asianization” [1885], in Meiji Japan through Contemporary Sources, ed. Center for East Asian Cultural Studies, 3 vols. (Tokyo: Center for East Asian Cultural Studies, 1972), 3:129–33, here p. 133.

37 Charles S. Maier, “Consigning the Twentieth Century to History: Alternative Narratives for the Modern Era,” American Historical Review 105, no. 3 (2000): 807–31; Maier, Once within Borders: Territories of Power, Wealth, and Belonging since 1500 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2016).

38 Sönke Neitzel, Weltmacht oder Untergang? Die Weltreichslehre im Zeitalter des Imperialismus (Paderborn: Schoningh, 2000); Duncan Bell, The Idea of Greater Britain: Empire and the Future of World Order, 1860–1900 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2007); John Darwin, The Empire Project: The Rise and Fall of the British World-System, 1830–1970 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011).

39 Hew Strachan, “The First World War as a Global War,” First World War Studies 1 (2010): 3–14; Robert Gerwarth and Erez Manela, “The Great War as a Global War: Imperial Conflict and the Reconfiguration of World Order, 1911–1923,” Diplomatic History 38, no. 4 (2014): 786–800; Federico Finchelstein, Transatlantic Fascism: Ideology, Violence, and the Sacred in Argentina and Italy, 1919–1945 (Durham: Duke University Press, 2010); Reto Hofmann, The Fascist Effect: Japan and Italy 1915–1952 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2015); Daniel Hedinger, Die Achse Berlin–Rom–Tokio, 1919–1946 (Munich: C. H. Beck, 2021); Reto Hofmann and Daniel Hedinger, eds., “Axis Empires: Towards a Global History of Fascist Imperialism,” special issue, Journal of Global History 12, no. 2 (2017).

40 For eastern Europe, see Tobias Rupprecht, “Gestrandetes Flaggschiff: Die Moskauer Universität der Völkerfreundschaft,” Osteuropa 60, no. 1 (2010): 95–114; Anne Gorsuch and Diane Koenker, eds., The Socialist Sixties: Crossing Borders in the Second World (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2013); Oscar Sanchez-Sibony, Red Globalization: The Political Economy of the Soviet Cold War from Stalin to Khrushchev (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014); James Mark and Péter Apor, “Socialism Goes Global: Decolonization and the Making of a New Culture of Internationalism in Socialist Hungary, 1956–1989,” Journal of Modern History 87 (2015): 852–91; Anne E. Gorsuch, “‘Cuba, My Love’: The Romance of Revolutionary Cuba in the Soviet Sixties,” American Historical Review 120, no. 2 (2015): 497–526; Tobias Rupprecht, Soviet Internationalism after Stalin: Interaction and Exchange between the USSR and Latin America during the Cold War (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015); Jeremy Friedman, Shadow Cold War: The Sino-Soviet Competition for the Third World (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2015); Elidor Mëhilli, From Stalin to Mao: Albania and the Socialist World (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2017); Besnik Pula, Globalization under and after Socialism: The Evolution of Transnational Capital in Central and Eastern Europe (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2018); James Mark, Artemy M. Kalinovsky, and Steffi Marung, eds., Alternative Globalizations: Eastern Europe and the Postcolonial World (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2020).

41 Important examples of this new scholarship include Quinn Slobodian, Foreign Front: Third World Politics in Sixties West Germany (Durham: Duke University Press, 2012); and Christoph Kalter, The Discovery of the Third World: Decolonization and the Rise of the New Left in France, c. 1950–1976 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2016). See also Martin Klimke, The Other Alliance: Student Protest in West Germany and the United States in the Global Sixties (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2010); Alexander C. Cook, ed., Mao’s Little Red Book: A Global History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014); Timothy Scott Brown, West Germany and the Global Sixties: The Anti-Authoritarian Revolt, 1962–1978 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013); Samantha Christiansen and Zachary Scarlett, eds., The Third World in the Global 1960s (New York: Berghahn Books, 2013); Robert Gildea, James Mark, and Anette Warring, eds., Europe’s 1968: Voices of Revolt (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013); Quinn Slobodian, ed., Comrades of Color: East Germany in the Cold War World (New York: Berghahn Books, 2015); and Chen Jian et al., eds., The Routledge Handbook of the Global Sixties: Between Protest and Nation-Building (London: Routledge, 2018).

42 Kim Christiaens, “Europe at the Crossroads of Three Worlds: Alternative Histories and Connections of European Solidarity with the Third World, 1950s–80s,” in “The Bonds that Unite? Historical Perspectives on European Solidarity/Les liens qui unissent ? Perspectives historiques sur la solidarité européenne,” special issue, European Review of History/Revue européenne d’histoire 24, no. 6 (2017): 932–54, here p. 947.

43 Götz Aly and Susanne Heim, Architects of Annihilation: Auschwitz and the Logic of Destruction [1991], trans. A. G. Blunden (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2003); Mazower, Hitler’s Empire.

44 Sven Beckert, “American Danger: United States Empire, Eurafrica, and the Territorialization of Industrial Capitalism, 1870–1950,” American Historical Review 122, no. 4 (2017): 1137–70; Peo Hansen and Stefan Jonsson, Eurafrica: The Untold History of European Integration and Colonialism (London: Bloomsbury, 2014).

45 Peo Hansen, “European Integration: European Identity and the Colonial Connection,” European Journal of Social Theory 5, no. 4 (2002): 483–98; António de Figueiredo, “The Empire Is Dead, Long Live the EU,” in The Last Empire: Thirty Years of Portuguese Decolonization, ed. Stewart Lloyd-Jones and António Costa Pinto (Bristol: Intellect, 2003), 127–44; António Costa Pinto and Nuno Severiano Teixeira, “From Atlantic Past to European Destiny: Portugal,” in European Union Enlargement: A Comparative History, ed. Wolfram Kaiser and Jürgen Elvert (London: Routledge, 2004), 112–30; Elena Calandri, ed., Il primato sfuggente. L’Europa e l’intervento per lo sviluppo (1957–2007) (Milan: FrancoAngeli, 2009); Marie-Thérèse Bitsch and Gérard Bossuat, eds., L’Europe unie et l’Afrique. De l’idée d’Eurafrique à la Convention de Lomé I (Brussels: Bruylant, 2005); Giuliano Garavini, Dopo gli imperi. L’integrazione europea nello scontro Nord-Sud (Florence: Mondadori, 2009). See also the informative literature review by Kiran Klaus Patel, “Europäische Integrationsgeschichte auf dem Weg zur doppelten Neuorientierung. Ein Forschungsbericht,” Archiv für Sozialgeschichte 50 (2010): 595–642.

46 Kiran Klaus Patel, “Germany and European Integration since 1945,” in The Oxford Handbook of Modern German History, ed. Helmut Walser Smith (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011), 775–94; Peter Katzenstein, Tamed Power: Germany in Europe (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1997); Mareike König and Matthias Schulz, eds., Die Bundesrepublik Deutschland und die europäische Einigung, 1949–2000. Politische Akteure, gesellschaftliche Kräfte und internationale Erfahrungen (Stuttgart: F. Steiner, 2004); Peter J. Katzenstein, A World of Regions: Asia and Europe in the American Imperium (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2005); Martin Conway and Kiran Klaus Patel, eds., Europeanization in the Twentieth Century: Historical Approaches (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010).

47 Gurminder K. Bhambra, “Historical Sociology, Modernity, and Postcolonial Critique,” American Historical Review 116, no. 3 (2011): 653–62, here p. 662 (emphasis in the original). See also Bhambra, Connected Sociologies (London: Bloomsbury, 2014).

48 For a delineation of global history as a distinct approach, see Conrad, What Is Global History? 62–89; Romain Bertrand and Guillaume Calafat, “La microhistoire globale : affaire(s) à suivre,” Annales HSS 73, no. 1 (2018): 1–18; and Les Annales, “Les échelles du monde. Pluraliser, croiser, généraliser,” Annales HSS 75, no. 3/4 (2020): 465–92.

49 For a premature obituary, see Jeremy Adelman, “What Is Global History Now?” Aeon, March 2, 2017, https://aeon.co/essays/is-global-history-still-possible-or-has-it-had-its-moment. See also Richard Drayton and David Motadel, “Discussion: The Futures of Global History,” Journal of Global History 13, no. 1 (2018): 1–21.