¹ Thomas M. McCoog, ‘Construing Martyrdom in the English Catholic Community, 1582-1602’, in Ethan Shagan, ed. Catholics and the ‘Protestant Nation’: Religious Politics and Identity in Early Modern England (Manchester: Manchester University Press), 95.

² An extensive list of works on Reformation martyrs in western and central Europe is provided in Brad Gregory, Salvation at Stake: Christian Martyrdom in Early Modern Europe (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999), 363-5. As will be partially seen from further notes in this article, the current century has seen a continuing stream of works on martyrs, martyrdom and persecution in early modern Europe as well as the publication of important primary sources, notably the British Academy’s digitalization of John Foxe’s Acts and Monuments and Victor Houliston’s continuing publication of the correspondence of Robert Persons. See The Correspondence and Unpublished Papers of Robert Persons, SJ, Volume I,1574-1588 eds. Victor Houliston et al, (Toronto: Pontifical Institute of Medieval Studies, 2017) and The Correspondence of Robert Persons, SJ, Volume II, 1588-97, eds. Victor Houliston et al, (Toronto: Pontifical Institute of Medieval Studies [2023]). A third volume covering the correspondence for the years 1598-1610 is forthcoming.

³ Frances E. Dolan, ‘“Gentlemen, I have one more thing to say”: Women on Scaffolds in England, 1565-1680’, Modern Philology 92 (1994): 157-178 at p. 161 (my emphasis).

⁴ Among the numerous works discussing the connections between martyrdom and terrorism are David Cook and Olivia Allison, Understanding and Addressing Suicide Attacks: The Faith and Politics of Martyrdom Operations (Westport, CT: Praeger, 2007); Madawi Al-Rasheed and Marat Shterin, eds. Dying for Faith: Religiously Motivated Violence in the Contemporary World (London: I. B. Tauris, 2009) and Assaf Moghadam, Globalization of Martyrdom: Al Qaeda, Salafi Jihad and the Diffusion of Suicide Attacks (Baltimore: John Hopkins Press, 2008).

⁵ Thorsten Opper, Nero: The Man Behind the Myth (London: British Museum Press, 2011), 208-9. Admittedly, Opper’s scepticism over the accuracy of Tacitus’ passage is shared by many scholars.

⁶ Op cit., 208.

⁷ Lloyd de Beer and Naomi Speakman, Thomas Becket: Murder and the Making of a Saint (London: British Museum Press, 2021), 220.

⁸ Seymour Byman, ‘Ritualistic Acts and Compulsive Behavior: The Pattern of Tudor Martyrdom’, American Historical Review 83 (1978): 625-43; also see the comments on Byman’s article in Brad Gregory, Salvation at Stake, Christian Martyrdom in Early Modern Europe (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999), 100-101.

⁹ Michael Graves, Thomas Norton: Parliament Man (Oxford: Blackwell, 1994).

¹⁰ Wolf Hall, directed by Peter Kosminsky and written by Peter Straughan (BBC, 2015).

¹¹ See William Haller, Foxe’s Book of Martyrs and the Elect Nation (London: J. Cape, 1963) and Linda Colley, Britons: Forging the Nation, 1707-1837 (New Haven, CT, and London: Yale University Press, 1992), ch. 1.

¹² Notable examples include David Nicholls, ‘The Theatre of Martyrdom in the French Reformation’, Past and Present 121 (1988): 49-73 and Peter Lake and Michael Questier, ‘Agency, Appropriation and Rhetoric under the Gallows: Puritans, Romanists and the State in Early Modern England’ Past and Present 153 (1996): 64-107. Also see Dillon, Construction of Martyrdom, 166-9.

¹³ There are quite a few works on how women martyrs were presented in English Protestant martyrologies, the best of these is Megan L. Hickerson, Making Women Martyrs on Tudor England (Basingstoke: Palgrave MacMillan, 2005). Much less writing has been done on the actual experiences of female martyrs apart from Anne Askew and Margaret Clitherow. For a sample of the works on Anne Askew, written from different disciplines and perspectives see Thomas Betteridge, ‘Anne Askew, John Bale and Protestant History’, Journal of Medieval and Early Modern History 27 (1997): 1165-90; Kimberly Ann Coles, ‘”The Death of the Author (and the Appropriation of her Text): The Case of Anne Askew’s Examinations’, Modern Philology 99 (2002): 515-40; Paula McQuade, ‘“Except they had Offended the Law” Gender and Jurisprudence in the Examinations of Anne Askew’, Literature and History 3 (1994): 1-14; Thomas S. Freeman and Sarah Elizabeth Wall, ‘Racking the Body, Shaping the Text: The Account of Anne Askew in Foxe’s “Book of Martyrs”, Renaissance Quarterly 54 (2001): 1165-90; Megan L. Hickerson, ‘“Ways of Lying”: Anne Askew and the Examinations’, Gender and History 18 (2006): 50-65 and Elizabeth Mazzola, ‘Expert Witnesses and Sacred Subjects: Anne Askew’s Examinations and Renaissance Self-Incrimination’ in Carole Levin and Patricia M. Sullivan, eds. Political Rhetoric: Power and Renaissance Women, Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1995, 157-71. On Margaret Clitherow, see Peter Lake and Michael Questier, The Trials of Margaret Clitherow: Persecution, Martyrdom and the Politics of Sanctity in Elizabethan England (New York and London, Continuum,2011); Dillon, Construction of Martyrdom, 277-322 and Claire Cross, ‘An Elizabethan Martyrologist and his Martyr: John Mush and Margaret Clitherow’, in Diana Wood, ed. Martyrs and Martyrologies, (Oxford: Blackwell, 1993), 271-81.

¹⁴ This has been particularly the case with John Foxe. See Elizabeth Evenden and Thomas Freeman, Religion and the Book in Early Modern England: The Making of Foxe’s ‘Book of Martyrs’ (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011) and John N. King, Foxe’s Book of Martyrs and Early Modern Print Culture (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006). Also note the ongoing work of Mark Rankin, including ‘“Accuracy” and “Error” in the Production of John Foxe and John Day’s Acts and Monuments’ The Library 7^th series, 24 (2023): 25-50 and ‘John Foxe and the Earliest Readers of William Tyndale’s The Practice of Prelates (1530)’, English Literary Renaissance 46 (2016): 158-93. For Jean Crespin, the Genevan martyrologist and printer see Jean-François Gilmont, Jean Crespin: Un éditeur réforme du XVIe siècle (Geneva: Libraire Droz, 1981). For Catholic martyrological book and pamphlet production see Christopher Highley, ‘Richard Verstegan’s Book of Martyrs’ in Christopher Highley and John N. King, eds. John Foxe and his World (Aldershot and Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2002), 183-97; Dillon, Construction of Martyrdom, 120-276 and Paul Arblaster, Antwerp and the International Culture of Catholic Reformation (Leuven: Leuven University Press, 2004).

¹⁵ Peter Lake and Michael Questier, The Antichrist’s Lewd Hat: Protestants, Papists and Players in Post-Reformation England (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2002), 321.

¹⁶ Susannah Brietz Monta, Martyrdom and Literature in Early Modern England (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005); David K. Anderson, Martyrs and Players in Early Modern England: Tragedy, Religion and Violence on Stage (Ashgate: Aldershot ands Burlington, VT, 2014), particularly ch. 1 and Marsha Robinson, Writing the Reformation: Actes and Monuments and the Jacobean History Play (Ashgate, Aldershot and Burlington, VT, 2002).

¹⁷ See Alison Shell, Catholicism, Controversy and the English Literary Imagination, 1558-1600 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999) for the contribution of religious writing to early modern English literature.

¹⁸ For example, Dutch Calvinists successfully used the example of their martyrs to win supporters against both Catholics and Anabaptists: Phyllis Mack Crew, Calvinist Preachers and Iconoclasm on the Netherlands 1544-1569 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978), 73-74.

¹⁹ For Dutch Anabaptists citing their own martyrs against rival Anabaptist religious communities see Gregory, Salvation at Stake, 240-3. Among the Marian Protestants, those who believed in predestination very successfully used the writings and examples of Marian martyrs who championed the doctrine against their ‘Freewiller’ opponents. Thomas Freeman, ‘Dissenters from a Dissenting Church: The Challenge of the Freewillers, 1550-1558’ in Peter Marshall and Alec Ryrie, eds. The Beginnings of English Protestantism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), 129-56, esp. 152-5.

²⁰ McCoog, ’Construing Martyrdom’, 106-20 and Lake and Questier, Antichrist’s Lewd Hat, 281-314.

²¹ Susan Doran, ‘Revenge her Most Foul and Unnatural Murder? The Impact of Mary Stewart’s Execution on Anglo-Scottish Relations’, History 85 (2000): 589-612.

²² See Susan Doran and Paulina Kewes, eds. Doubtful and Dangerous: The Question of Succession in Late Elizabethan England, (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2014) and Paulina Kewes and Gordon McRae, eds. Stuart Succession Literature: Moments and Transformations (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2019).

²³ A particularly impressive example of the synthesising of these different approaches and perspectives occurs in the tenth chapter of Questier’s book.

²⁴ Haller, Foxe and the Elect Nation.

²⁵ Catherine Randall Coats, (Em)bodying the Word. Textual Resurrections in the Martyrological Narratives of Foxe, Crespin, de Bėze and d’Aubigné (New York, 1992) and Alice Dailey, The English Martyr from Reformation to Revolution (Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 2012). On Coats, see the comments of Brad Gregory, Salvation at Stake, 365 n. 10. Dailey’s analysis of Foxe, in English Martyr, 53-97 is in very large part devoted to what modern authors have said about Foxe. Neither Coats nor Dailey pay serious attention to the sources of the martyrological texts that they analyse. For an example of Coats analysing what she considers to be particular features of Foxe’s writing style based on passages which were word-for-word translations from another author see Coats, (Em)bodying, 46-7 and cf. Johannis Hus et Hieronymi Pragensis confessorum Christi Historia et Monumenta (Nuremberg: Johann von Berg and Neuber, 1558), II, fos. 349r-354r with Foxe, Acts and Monuments (1583), 632-7.

²⁶ There has been a partial translation of the book: John Bale’s Catalogue of Tudor Authors: An Annotated Translation from the Scriptorum Illustrium Maioris Brytanniae…Catalogus, trans. J. Christopher Warner (Binghamton, NY, State University of New York Press, 2010). This translates and annotates Bale’s biographies of British authors but does not translate, or print, the discussions of Church history and the papal biographies that comprise about half of Bale’s two-volume work.

²⁷ Gregory, Salvation at Stake, 16-23.

²⁸ Andrew Pettegree, ‘Haemstede and Foxe’ in David Loades, ed. John Foxe and the English Reformation, (Aldershot: Scolar Press, 1997), 288-94.

²⁹ For Foxe’s account of Hunter’s death see John Foxe, Actes and monuments of matters most special and memorable…(London: John Day, 1583), 1535-9.

³⁰ See the discussion of this in Thomas S. Freeman, ‘The importance of dying earnestly: the metamorphosis of the account of James Bainham in Foxe’s Book of Martyrs’, in R. N. Swanson, ed. The Church Retrospective, (Woodbridge, Suffolk: Boydell and Brewer, 1997), 285-6 and John N. King, ‘Fiction and Fact in Foxe’s Book of Martyrs’ in Loades, ed. Foxe and the English Reformation, 23-4.

³¹ Also see pp. 29-30 and 77-9. Questier also argues, less convincingly, that there is often not enough historical information on the Henrician martyrs.

³² See Gregory, Salvation at Stake, 268-72, Dillon, Construction of Martyrdom, 326-63 as well as Fred Smith, Transnational Catholicism in Tudor England (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2022), 117 and 211-14. Anne Dillon also explores, in remarkable detail, the dissemination and influence of a broadsheet illustrating the martyrdom of the English Carthusians: Anne Dillon, Michelangelo and the English Martyrs (Farnham: Ashgate, 2012). Admittedly, Thomas McCoog has maintained that the Henrician martyrs did not really interest their Catholic successors until the Appellant Controversy: McCoog, ‘Construing Martyrdom’, 160, but McCoog is basing his judgement on printed works, not those which were circulating in manuscript the reigns of the later Tudors. And even with this borne in mind, I feel that recent scholarship has shown this view to be mistaken, although McCoog’s point about the Appellant Controversy stimulating interest in the Henrician Catholics is correct and demonstrated throughout Questier’s book.

³³ Dillon, Construction of Martyrdom, 52-66 and Thomas S. Freeman, ‘Over their dead bodies: concepts of Martyrdom on Late-Medieval and Early-Modern England’ in Martyrs and Martyrdom in England, c. 1400-1700, eds. Thomas S. Freeman and Thomas F. Mayer (Woodbridge, Suffolk: The Boydell Press: 2007), 18-22.

³⁴ Peter Lake, Anti-popery: the Structure of a Prejudice’ in Richard Cust and Anne Hughes, Conflict in Early Stuart England: Studies in Religion and Politics 1603-1642 (Longman: London and New York, 1989), 72-107.

³⁵ Questier himself has elsewhere meticulously the different motives of provincial priest hunters in ‘Practical Antipapistry during the reign of Elizabeth I,’ Journal of British Studies 36 (1997), 371-96.

³⁶ Liesbeth Corens has written an important article on the formation and role of Catholic archives ‘Dislocation and Record Keeping: The Counter Archives of the Catholic Diaspora’, Past and Present Supplement 11 (2016): 269-87. Corens’ concept of a ‘counter archive’ is potentially seminal, especially if it would be applied in comparative martyrology.

³⁷ McCoog, ‘Construing Martyrdom’, 103-6; Dillon, Constructing Martyrdom, 78-82 and Arthur F. Marotti, ‘Manuscript Transmission and Catholic Martyrdom Account’ in Religious Ideology and Cultural Fantasy, ed. Arthur F. Marotti (Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 2005), 69-74. Questier notes that the great Spanish playwright Pedro Calderón de la Barca wrote a drama on the English martyrs, which was based on Pedro de Ribadeneira’s martyrological text, which, in turn, was based on reports English Catholics has submitted to the Jesuits, p. 468.

³⁸ For two detailed case studies of this see Thomas S. Freeman and David Gehrig, ‘Martyrologists without Boundaries: The collaboration of John Foxe and Heinrich Pantaleon’, Journal of Ecclesiastical History 69 (2018): 746-767 and Thomas S. Freeman, ‘1077 and all that: Gregory VII in Reformation historical writing’, Renaissance Studies 35 (2021): 118-45.

³⁹ See Dillon, Construction of Martyrdom, 18-71 and Freeman, ‘Over their dead bodies’, 12-25.

⁴⁰ Marotti, Religious Ideology, 77-89. Marotti, drawing on Lake and Questier, claims that there is another key difference: Catholics were anxious to concentrate, in graphic detail, on the physical sufferings of the martyrs, while Protestants focused on the spiritual state of the martyrs and only dealt with the physical sufferings when they reflected the martyr’s spiritual condition. Marotti, Religious Ideology, 77. I think that this observation is mistaken. There are numerous martyrdoms, such as the burnings of John Lambert, George Wishart, John Hooper, Nicholas Ridley and Perotine Massey (with her infant son) which are recounted by Foxe in the grisliest detail. And, in fact, apart from Wishart’s execution all of the martyrdoms that I have mentioned are illustrated with large woodcuts depicting the physical sufferings of the martyrs.

⁴¹ For a discussion summarizing this argument this argument, see Monta, Martyrdom and Literature, 53-78.

⁴² See Thomas S. Freeman, ‘Fate, Fact and Fiction on Foxe’s “Book of Martyrs”’, Historical Journal 43 (2000), 601-23 and for the death of persecutors in Huguenot martyrologies see Nicholls, Theatre of Martyrdom’, 67 n. 61. In two particularly striking cases, judges who ordered the mutilation of Protestant martyrs are providentially mutilated in graphically appropriate ways. See Theodore Beza, Histoire ecclesiástique des églises réformėes au royaume de France, eds. W. J. Baum and A. E. Cunitz, 3 vols. (Paris: Libraire Fischbaker, 1883-1889) I, 411-12 and Agrippa d’Aubignė, Histoire universalle, 8 vols. (Geneva: Libraire Droz, 1981-94), I, 243. The divine chastisement of persecutors was a theme common to Catholic and P4rotestant martyrs, which has roots in patristic literature, notably Lactantius’ De mortibus persecutorum, which was written c. 316 C.E.

⁴³ E.g., Foxe, Acts and Monuments (1583), 1538, 1604, 1704, 1893 and 2032-3.

⁴⁴ Miles Huggarde, The displaying of the protestantes (London: R. Caly, 1556), fo. 62r. Similarly, a dove was supposed to have descended on the Huguenot martyr Geoffrey Varagle at his burning in 1558; see Jean Crespin, Actes des martyrs (Geneva: Jean Crespin, 1564), 895-7.

⁴⁵ John Foxe, Actes and monuments of these latter and perilous days…(London: John Day, 1563), 1640. (The ‘miracle’ is only described in this edition).

⁴⁶ See David el Kenz, Les bûchers du roi: La culture protestante des martyrs (1525-1572), (Paris: Champ Vallon, 1997), 156-7.

⁴⁷ Heinrich Pantaleon, Martyrum historia (Basel: J. Oporinus, 1564), 110.

⁴⁸ See Patrick Collinson, ‘“A Magazine of Religious Patterns”: An Erasmian topic transposed in English Protestantism’ in Godly People: Essays on English Protestantism and Puritanism (London: Hambledon Continuum, 1982), 510-25 and Freeman, ‘Importance of dying Earnestly, 267-88. For other examples of Foxe hailing the constancy of his martyrs as miraculous see Foxe, Acts and Monuments (1583), 1030 and 1521.

⁴⁹ ‘Commenticiis et ridiculis illis Psuedimartyrum signis (quae tantopere exasculant Foxus)’ (Nicholas Harpsfield, Dialogi sex contra summi pontificatus, monasticae vitae, Sanctorum, sacrarum imaginum oppugnatores, et pseudomartyres [Antwerp: Christopher Plantin, 1566], 966).

⁵⁰ Dillon, Construction of Martyrdom, 85-8.

⁵¹ Huggarde, Displaying, fo. 54v.

⁵² Acts of the Privy Council of England (1542-1628), eds. J. RR. Dasent et al. 32 vols. (London: Her Majesty’s Stationary Office, 1890-1907), V, 120.

⁵³ John Foxe, Acts and Monuments (1583), 1769 and 2004. Foxe neither praised or condemned this behaviour.

⁵⁴ Calendar of State Papers, Domestic: Charles I, 1637-8, ed. John Brice (London: Her Majesty’s Stationary Office, 1869), 332.

⁵⁵ Lois Schwoerer, ‘William, Lord Russell, The Making of a Martyr, 1683-1983’, Journal of British Studies 24 (1985): 50. For the collection of relics of Charles I and these relics being credited with healing miracles see Andrew Lacey, ‘“Charles the First and Christ the Second”: The Creation of a Political Martyr’ in Martyrs and Martyrologies, 206-7.

⁵⁶ Gregory, Salvation at Stake, 175-6.

⁵⁷ Glyn Redworth, The She-Apostle: The Extraordinary Life and Death of Luisa de Carvajal (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008).

⁵⁸ There is one area where, due to doctrine, there was a great gulf fixed between Catholic and Protestant martyrologies. There is no praise in Protestant martyrologies of martyrs as intercessors for the faithful or for people of a particular city or region. Such praise is a ubiquitous feature of Catholic martyrologies.

⁵⁹ This at least is argued in in Freeman, ‘Over Their Dead Bodies’, 18-24 and Thomas S. Freeman, ‘ “Imitatio Christi with a Vengeance”: The Politicisation of Martyrdom in Early-Modern England’, in Martyrs and Martyrdom 43-54. On late-medieval martyrology see Danna Piroyansky, ‘“Thus may a man be a martyr”’ in Martyrs and Martyrdom, 70-87, 207-11 and 321.

⁶⁰ Alice Dailey is a leading proponent of this view in her The English Martyr.

⁶¹ On this critical reaction against the Legenda aurea see Sherry L. Reames, The Legenda Aurea: A Reexamination of its Paradoxical History (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1985), 11-14, 26-32, 37-43 and 51-7. Morgan Ring has persuasively qualified Reames’ findings on the completeness of the decline of the Legenda aurea’s reputation, but she does not deny that there was a significant reaction against the work. See Morgan Ring, ‘The Golden Legend’ and the English Reformation, c. 1483-1625’ PhD diss., (University of Cambridge, 2017), 91-6 and 149-58.

⁶² See Andrė Vauchez, Sainthood in the Later Middle Ages, trans. Jean Birrell (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), 300-3, 212-5, 329-36, 350-5, 376-85 and 439-43.

⁶³ Piroyansky, ‘Notion’, 79-80. For other examples of innocent victims— including people struck by lightning—being regarded as martyrs see Vauchez, 89 and 147-54. An extreme example of this is the popular veneration of St Guinefort, a greyhound unjustly slain by his master, as a martyr. Jean-Claude Schmitt, The Holy Greyhound: Guinefort, Healer of Children since the Thirteenth Century, trans. Martin Thom (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983). It should be added that the Church unequivocally denounced the veneration of this ‘martyr’.

⁶⁴ Nicholas Harpsfield went even further and maintained that only death suffered for Christ made a true martyr Dialogi sex, 821-2.

⁶⁵ Gregory, Salvation at Stake, 329-39.

⁶⁶ Freeman, Politicisation’, 53-4. A major reason for Catholic, as well as Protestant, attacks on the Legenda aurea was the painless deaths that martyrs experienced in this work. Reames, Legenda aurea, 51-4.

⁶⁷ For a few examples, out of many, see the Legenda aurea accounts of St. Christina being thrown into a fiery furnace and walking in it, for five days, conversing with with angels or St. Dionysius (St. Denis) being beheaded, and taking his head in his hands, walking for two miles. See Jacobus de Voragine, The Golden Legend, trans. William Granger Ryan, 2 vols. (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1993), I, 387 and II, 240. For such extravagant miracles not being a feature of post-Reformation Catholic martyrologies see Gregory, Salvation at Stake, 496. n.271.

⁶⁸ Renee Neu Watkins, ‘The Death of Jerome of Prague: Divergent Views’, Speculum 42 (1967): 118-24.

⁶⁹ Andrea McKenzie, Tyburn’s Martyrs: Execution in England 1675-1775 (London: Hambledon Continuum, 2007), 226.

⁷⁰ John Coffey, ‘The Martyrdom of Sir Henry Vane the Younger from Apocalyptic Witness to Heroic Whig’ in Martyrs and Martyrologies, 222.

⁷¹ Freeman, ‘Politicisation’, 43-8.

⁷² William Prynne, A new discovery of the prelates tyranny…(London: ‘M.S.’, 1671), 65.

⁷³ Dillon, Construction of Martyrdom, 36-72 and Freeman, ‘’Over Their Dead Bodies’, 20-22.

⁷⁴ Freeman, ‘Politicisation’, 43-51.

⁷⁵ Op. cit, 56-9.

⁷⁶ See Colin Haydon, Anti-Catholicism in Eighteenth-Century Britain (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1995) and Peter B. Nockles, ‘The Changing Legacy and Reputation of John Foxe’s “Book of Martyrs” in the “Long Eighteenth Century”: Varieties of Anglican, Protestant and Catholic Response, c. 1760-c. 1850’ in Religion, Politics and Dissent, 1660-1832: Essays in Honour of James E. Bradley, eds. Robert D. Cornwall and William Gibson (Farnham: Ashgate, 2010), 219-48.

⁷⁷ For Corens’ concept of the ‘counter archive’ see note 36 above. For Quaker documentation of their martyrs and martyrological methodology see Freeman, ‘Over Their Dead Bodies’, 27-28. For Quakers using Foxe’s martyrology as a template and model see Brooke Sylvia Palmieri, ‘Compelling Reading: The Circulation of Quaker Texts, 1650-1700’ (PhD dissertation, University of London, 2017), 84-123. For New England Quakers martyrs imitating Foxe’s martyrs see David D. Hall, Worlds of Wonder, Days of Judgement: Popular Religious Belief in Early New England (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1989), 187-9.

⁷⁸ Alexandra Walsham, Charitable Hatred: Tolerance and Intolerance in England, 1500-1700 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2006), 173.

⁷⁹ Edward J. Cowan, ‘The Covenanting Tradition in Scottish History’ in Scottish History: The Power of the Past, eds. Edward J. Cowan and Robert J. Finlay (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2014), 130-53 and James J. Coleman, Remembering the Past in Nineteenth Century Scotland: Commemoration, Nationality and Memory (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2014), 130-53.

⁸⁰ Lacey, ‘Charles the First’, 202-220.

⁸¹ Roger L’Estrange, Considerations upon a printed sheet entituled the Speech of the late Lord Russell to the Sheriffs (London: ‘T.B.’, 1683), 18.

⁸² James Heath, A new book of loyal English martyrs and confessors…(London: ‘R. H.’, 1665?), 15 and 140. The comparison to saints under the altar is, of course, a reference to Revelation 6:9.

⁸³ John Tutchin, The Western Martyrology or the Bloody Assizes (London: John Tutchin, 1705), 909.

⁸⁴ Anthony Milton, ‘Marketing a Massacre: Ambonya, the East India Company and the Public Sphere in Early Modern England’ in Steve Pincus and Peter Lake, eds. The Politics of the Public Sphere in Early Modern England (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2007), 198-24.

⁸⁵ Some of this is briefly sketched in Freeman, ‘Politicisation’, 66-69.

⁸⁶ The Belfast Telegraph 9 May 2013.