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Article contents
It's all relative: The origins, legal character and normative content of the humanitarian principles
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 17 August 2023
Abstract
Analyses of the humanitarian principles of humanity, neutrality, impartiality and independence often focus on the principles’ meanings and/or the challenges of applying them in practice. This article, by contrast, steps back to address foundational but somewhat neglected questions about whether these principles can accurately be designated “the” humanitarian principles; about how they came to govern the whole humanitarian sector; about their legal character and normative content; and, more fundamentally, about whether the principles can even have objective character and content. It begins by defining “humanitarian principles” and determining whether and on what basis certain principles constitute “the” humanitarian principles. The article then traces the history of how the principles came to govern the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement and diffused from there to non-governmental organizations and the United Nations system. It then analyzes the principles’ legal character and normative content for each of the above-mentioned categories of actor plus States, demonstrating that the principles do not – and, legally, cannot – have fixed legal character and normative content. While humanitarian actors share common understandings of the principles, legally the character and content of each principle flows from its source for the actor in question.
Keywords
- Type
- Research Article
- Information
- Copyright
- Copyright © The Author(s), 2023. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of the ICRC.
Footnotes
*
I am grateful to Jan Eliasson, Hugo Slim and Edward Tsui for sharing stories and invaluable insights in research interviews; for the excellent research assistance of Hye Joon Lee and Poonam Sandhu; for advice and feedback from Aurelien Buffler and Francesco Messineo of the UN Secretariat and from the Review's anonymous peer reviewers; for incisive comments from Emanuela-Chiara Gillard of the Review's editorial board and special issue jury; and for research help from ICRC librarian Charlotte Mohr. This research was funded by the Canadian Defence Academy and the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada (Insight Grant). I am grateful to the Université de Sherbrooke for its administration of my Insight Grant.
The advice, opinions and statements contained in this article are those of the author/s and do not necessarily reflect the views of the ICRC. The ICRC does not necessarily represent or endorse the accuracy or reliability of any advice, opinion, statement or other information provided in this article.
References
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6 Geneva Convention (I) for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armed Forces in the Field of 12 August 1949, 75 UNTS 31 (entered into force 21 October 1950) (GC I), Arts 3(2), 9; Geneva Convention (II) for the Amelioration of the Condition of Wounded, Sick and Shipwrecked Members of Armed Forces at Sea of 12 August 1949, 75 UNTS 85 (entered into force 21 October 1950) (GC II), Arts 3(2), 9; Geneva Convention (III) relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War of 12 August 1949, 75 UNTS 135 (entered into force 21 October 1950) (GC III), Arts 3(2), 9; Geneva Convention (IV) relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War of 12 August 1949, 75 UNTS 287 (entered into force 21 October 1950) (GC IV), Arts 3(2), 10, 59, 61.
7 Protocol Additional (I) to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts, 1125 UNTS 3, 8 June 1977 (entered into force 7 December 1978) (AP I), Arts 5(3), 5(4), 9(2)(c), 22(2)(b), 60(2), 70(1); Protocol Additional (II) to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection of Victims of Non-International Armed Conflicts, 1125 UNTS 609, 8 June 1977 (entered into force 7 December 1978) (AP II), Art 18(2).
8 ICJ, Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States of America), Merits, ICJ Reports 1986, p. 14.
9 Kate Mackintosh, The Principles of Humanitarian Action in International Humanitarian Law, Humanitarian Policy Group Report No. 5, Overseas Development Institute, London, March 2000.
10 The Movement consists of the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRC) and all National Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (National Societies). The Fundamental Principles Movement are listed in the following section.
11 Examples are provided in the section below on “The History of the Core Humanitarian Principles”.
12 States are also important humanitarian actors, and several have adopted humanitarian principles. However, it is not possible to analyze the history of how humanitarian principles came to govern States as a category because whether and how individual States have adopted humanitarian principles is specific to each State.
13 K. Mačák, “A Matter of Principle(s)”, above note 5, p. 159; examples in this regard are cited in the section below on “Legal Character and Normative Content”.
14 K. Mačák, “A Matter of Principle(s)”, above note 5; M. Weller, above note 5.
15 OCHA, OCHA on Message: Humanitarian Principles, July 2022, available at: www.unocha.org/sites/unocha/files/OOM_Humanitarian%20Principles_Eng.pdf.
16 UNHCR, Emergency Handbook, 4th ed., 2015, available at: https://emergency.unhcr.org/.
17 African Union Convention for the Protection and Assistance of Internally Displaced Persons in Africa, 49 ILM 86, 23 October 2009 (entered into force 6 December 2012) (Kampala Convention), Art. 6(3).
18 Joint Statement by the Council and the Representatives of the Governments of the Member States meeting within the Council, the European Parliament and the European Commission, “The European Consensus on Humanitarian Aid”, OJ C 25, 30 January 2008, para. 10, noting that “[t]he EU is firmly committed to upholding and promoting the fundamental principles of humanity, neutrality, impartiality and independence”.
19 Sphere Association, The Sphere Handbook: Humanitarian Charter and Minimum Standards in Humanitarian Response, Geneva, 2018.
20 See, for example, Ferris, Elizabeth, The Politics of Protection: The Limits of Humanitarian Action, Brookings Institution, Washington, DC, 2011, p. 11Google Scholar.
21 HAP, The 2010 Standard in Accountability and Quality Management, 2nd ed., Geneva, 2010, pp. 8–9, available at: https://reliefweb.int/report/world/2010-hap-standard-accountability-and-quality-management-enar.
22 IFRC and ICRC, The Code of Conduct for the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement and Non-Governmental Organizations in Disaster Relief, 1994 (Code of Conduct), available at: www.icrc.org/en/doc/assets/files/publications/icrc-002-1067.pdf. While the Code of Conduct's full title mentions only “Disaster Relief”, it applies equally in armed conflict, as evidenced by its initial statement of purpose: “In the event of armed conflict, the present Code of Conduct will be interpreted and applied in conformity with international humanitarian law.” Perhaps the intent was for “disaster” to be understood as inclusive of armed conflict, a usage that was not uncommon at the time (consider, for example, the title of the 1989 book Assisting the Victims of Armed Conflict and Other Disasters, edited by Frits Kalshoven).
23 Code of Conduct, above note 22, pp. 3–5.
24 Ibid., p. 3.
25 OCHA, above note 15; see Annex 3 below.
26 See Hugo Slim, Humanitarian Resistance: Its Ethical and Operational Importance, Humanitarian Practice Network Paper No. 87, Overseas Development Institute, London, September 2022, available at: https://odihpn.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/Humanitarian-resistance_NP_web.pdf.
27 Oxfam International, The Oxfam Humanitarian Dossier, Version 4.A, 2012, pp. 15–16, available at: https://www.oxfamwash.org/running-programmes/coordination/OI%20Humanitarian%20Dossier%20version4a%20march2012.pdf.
28 Fiona Terry, “Taking Action, Not Sides: The Benefits of Humanitarian Neutrality in War”, Humanitarian Law and Policy Blog, 21 June 2022, available at: https://blogs.icrc.org/law-and-policy/2022/06/21/taking-action-not-sides-humanitarian-neutrality/.
29 The term “UN system” refers to the UN itself (i.e. the six principal organs and their subsidiary organs), plus the autonomous specialized agencies and related organizations.
30 UNGA Res. 45/100, 14 December 1990, preambular para. 14.
31 UNGA Res. 46/182, “Strengthening of the Coordination of Humanitarian Emergency Assistance of the United Nations”, 19 December 1991.
32 Ibid., Annex, para. 2.
33 See, for example, UNGA Res. 51/194, 10 February 1997, preambular para. 12; UNGA Res. 58/114, 17 December 2003, preambular para. 4.
34 See, for example, UNSC Res. 1296, 19 April 2000, para. 11; UNSC Presidential Statement 7, 13 March 2000, para. 9.
35 Interview with Edward Tsui, Chappaqua, New York, 29 June 2022 (on file with author).
36 AP I, Art. 70(1); AP II, Art. 18(2).
37 Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC), Report of the Representative of the Secretary-General, Mr. Francis M. Deng, Submitted Pursuant to Commission Resolution 1997/39: Addendum: Guiding Principles on Internal Displacement, UN Doc. E/CN.4/1998/53/Add.2, 11 February 1998.
38 UNGA Res. 58/114, above note 33, preambular para. 5.
39 See, for example, UNGA Res. 60/124, 8 March 2006, preambular para. 4; UNGA Res. 69/243, 11 February 2015, preambular para. 2; UNGA Res. 72/132, 15 January 2018, preambular para. 2; UNGA Res. 74/118, 20 January 2020, preambular para. 3; UNGA Res. 76/167, 7 January 2022, preambular para. 5; UNSC Res. 2228, 29 June 2015, para. 17; UNSC Res. 2274, 15 March 2016, preambular para. 24; UNSC Res. 2417, 24 May 2018, preambular para. 19; UNSC Res. 2504, 10 January 2020, para. 6.
40 ILC, Report of the International Law Commission on the Work of its Sixty-Eighth Session, UN Doc. A/71/10, 2016, para. 48.
41 ILC, Report of the International Law Commission on the Work of its Sixty-Second Session, UN Doc. A/65/10, 2010, para. 313.
42 Consolidated versions of the Treaty on the European Union and the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union, OJ C 202/1, 2016 (TFEU), Art. 214(2).
43 The other dimension is proportionality: see the subsection on “The International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement” within the section on “Legal Character and Normative Content” below.
44 H. Slim, above note 1, p. 40.
45 K. Mackintosh, above note 9.
46 This category consists of State/non-State responsibility; proportion and restraint; distinction; humane treatment; protection; assistance; precaution; military necessity; humanitarian initiative; and asylum. H. Slim, above note 1, p. 40.
47 Ibid., p. 40.
48 Ibid.
49 Forsythe, David P., The Humanitarians: The International Committee of the Red Cross, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2005, p. 161CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
50 M. Barnett, above note 4, p. 137.
51 Cf. the EU terminology of “fundamental humanitarian principles” in “The European Consensus”, above note 18. The word “core” is preferred because “fundamental” has legal meaning in some contexts (for example, “fundamental rights” in EU law); no such meaning is intended here.
52 Interview with Hugo Slim, Senior Research Fellow, Oxford Institute for Ethics, Law and Armed Conflict, via Zoom, 26 March 2021 (on file with author).
53 Jean Pictet, The Fundamental Principles of the Red Cross: Commentary, IFRC, Geneva, 1979, p. 8, available at: www.icrc.org/en/doc/resources/documents/misc/fundamental-principles-commentary-010179.htm.
54 Weiss, Thomas G., “Humanitarian Action”, in , Hurd, Ian and Johnstone, Ian (eds), The Oxford Handbook of International Organizations, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2016, p. 305Google Scholar.
55 OCHA, above note 15.
56 M. Barnett, above note 4, p. 137.
57 J. Glasman, above note 3.
58 See, for example, André Durand, “Quelques remarques sur l’élaboration des principes de la Croix-Rouge chez Gustave Moynier”, in Christophe Swinarski (ed.), Studies and Essays on International Humanitarian Law and Red Cross Principles in Honour of Jean Pictet, Brill Nijhoff, Geneva and The Hague, 1984; D. P. Forsythe, above note 49, Chap. 5; Hans Haug, Humanity for All: The International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement, Haupt, Berne, 1993, pp. 443–446. Note, however, that Moorehead's important history of the Movement does not address the Fundamental Principles in any detail: Caroline Moorehead, Dunant's Dream: War, Switzerland and the History of the Red Cross, HarperCollins, London 1998. The ICRC Library's excellent research guide on the Fundamental Principles is available at: https://blogs.icrc.org/cross-files/the-fundamental-principles-of-the-international-red-cross-and-red-crescent-movement/#_ftn1.
59 Henry Dunant, Un souvenir de Solférino, 1st ed., Imprimerie Jules-Guillaume Fick, Geneva, 1862.
60 Bugnion, François, “Birth of an Idea: the Founding of the International Committee of the Red Cross and of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement: From Solferino to the Original Geneva Convention (1859–1864)”, International Review of the Red Cross, Vol. 94, No. 888, 2012CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
61 Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded in Armies in the Field of 22 August 1864, Geneva (entered into force 22 June 1865) (1864 Geneva Convention).
62 Ibid. (emphasis added).
63 Ibid. (emphasis added).
64 According to J. Glasman, above note 3, there “were twelve [Red Cross] principles (in the 1880s), then around twenty (circa 1900), and subsequently six (1920)”.
65 Gustave Moynier, “Ce que c'est que la Croix-Rouge”, B. Soullier, Geneva, 1874.
66 H. Haug, above note 58, p. 444.
67 ICRC, The Fundamental Principles of the Red Cross and Red Crescent, ICRC Publication Ref. 0513, 1996, available at: www.icrc.org/en/doc/assets/files/other/icrc_002_0513.pdf.
68 Ibid. This conference – which brings together States party to the Geneva Conventions, components of the Movement and other humanitarian actors – is now known as the International Conference of the Red Cross and Red Crescent.
69 Pictet's job title in 1956 was director for general affairs (H. Haug, above note 58, p. 445).
70 Sandoz, Yves, “Max Huber and the Red Cross”, European Journal of International Law, Vol. 18, No. 1, 2007, p. 176CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
71 Jean Pictet, Red Cross Principles, ICRC, Geneva, 1956, available at: https://library.icrc.org/library/docs/DOC/DOC_00028.pdf.
72 H. Haug, above note 58, p. 445.
73 Ibid.
74 Ibid., pp. 445–446.
75 Ibid., p. 446.
76 International Conference of the Red Cross, “Resolutions Adopted by the XXth International Conference of the Red Cross”, International Review of the Red Cross, Vol. 5, No. 56, 1965.
77 Jean Pictet, “The Fundamental Principles of the Red Cross: Commentary [Parts 1–9]”, International Review of the Red Cross, Vols 19–20, Nos 210–218, 1979–80. This commentary was subsequently re-published by the IFRC as a standalone document: see J. Pictet, above note 53. It is discussed in more detail later in the article.
78 A volume prepared to mark Pictet's 70th birthday reflects this authority: C. Swinarski (ed.), above note 58.
79 Statutes of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement, 1986 (Red Cross Statutes), pp. 5–6, available at: www.icrc.org/en/doc/assets/files/other/statutes-en-a5.pdf.
80 J. Glasman, above note 3.
81 See text attached to above note 63.
82 “Men who suffer shall be helped; with equal distress, the help will be equivalent; with unequal distress, it will be conditioned by the importance of the needs and their urgency.” Pictet, Jean, “Les principles de la Croix-Rouge (III)”, International Review of the Red Cross, Vol. 37, No. 442, 1955, p. 636Google Scholar (author's translation).
83 International Conference of the Red Cross, above note 76, p. 573 (emphasis added).
84 J. Glasman, above note 3.
85 Ibid.
86 Ibid.; see also Daniel Palmieri, “Les principes fondamentaux de la Croix-Rouge: Une histoire politique”, ICRC, 6 July 2015, available at: www.icrc.org/fr/document/les-principes-fondamentaux-de-la-croix-rouge-une-histoire-politique.
87 J. Glasman, above note 4, pp. 31, 33 (internal citations omitted).
88 The other is the International Conference of the Red Cross and Red Crescent, which is described above at note 68.
89 ICRC and IFRC, Verbatim Report: Council of Delegates, Budapest, 28–30 November 1991, Geneva, 1992 Resolution 17, p. 221, available at: https://library.icrc.org/library/docs/CI/CD_1991_RAPPORT_ENG.pdf.
90 Ibid.
91 Ibid.
92 Interview with H. Slim, above note 52.
93 Formed in 1972, the Steering Committee for Humanitarian Response comprises ActAlliance, CARE, Caritas, the ICRC, the IFRC, the Lutheran World Federation, Oxfam International, Save the Children and World Vision. See the Steering Committee's website, available at: www.schr.info.
94 Hilhorst, Dorothea, “Dead Letter or Living Document? Ten Years of the Code of Conduct for Disaster Relief”, Disasters, Vol. 29, No. 4, 2005, p. 351CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed.
95 Meurant, Jacques (ed.), “Resolutions of the Council of Delegates (Adopted at Its Session of 29–30 October 1993, in Birmingham)”, International Review of the Red Cross, Vol. 33, No. 297, 1993Google Scholar, Resolutions 6, 8, available at: https://library.icrc.org/library/docs/CI/CD_1993_RESOLUTIONS_ENG.pdf.
96 See text attached to above note 23.
97 International Conference of the Red Cross and Red Crescent, “Twenty-Sixth International Conference of the Red Cross and Red Crescent, Geneva, 1995: Resolutions”, International Review of the Red Cross, Vol. 36, No. 310, 1996, p. 73.
98 OCHA, above note 15.
99 Minear, Larry and Weiss, Thomas G., Humanitarian Action in Times of War: A Handbook for Practitioners, Lynne Rienner, Boulder, CO, 1993, p. 19CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
100 Jon M. Ebersole, “The Mohonk Criteria for Humanitarian Assistance in Complex Emergencies: Task Force on Ethical and Legal Issues in Humanitarian Assistance”, Human Rights Quarterly, Vol. 17, No. 1, 1995.
101 Hugo Slim, “Wonderful Work: Globalizing the Ethics of Humanitarian Action”, in R. Mac Ginty and J. H. Peterson (eds), above note 1, p. 17. See also Jérémie Labbé, “Les principes de l'action humanitaire”, in Sandra Szurek, Marina Eudes and Philippe Ryfman (eds), Droit et pratique de l'action humanitaire, LGDJ, Issy-les-Moulineaux, 2019, p. 241. UN General Assembly Resolution 46/182 of 1991 may also have been influential. It provides that “[h]umanitarian assistance must be provided in accordance with the principles of humanity, neutrality and impartiality”; this is discussed below.
102 UNGA Res. 45/221, “Strengthening of the Office of the United Nations Disaster Relief Co-ordinator”, 21 December 1990.
103 UNGA Res. 46/182, above note 31, Annex, para. 34.
104 This recollection is reflected in published accounts such as Edward Tsui and Thant Myint-u, “The Institutional Response: Creating a Framework in Response to New Challenges”, in OCHA, The Humanitarian Decade: Challenges for Humanitarian Assistance in the Last Decade and into the Future, Vol. 2, New York, 2004, p. 3. However, other accounts, such as by Crisp, point to the centrality of the 1990–91 Persian Gulf crisis as the genesis for the adoption of Resolution 46/182: Crisp, Jeff, “Humanitarian Action and Coordination”, in Thomas G. Weiss and Sam Daws (eds), The Oxford Handbook on the United Nations, 2nd ed., Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2018, p. 588Google Scholar.
105 Interview with Jan Eliasson, via Zoom, 25 February 2022 (on file with author).
106 UN General Assembly, “Letter Dated 1 July 1991 from the Chargé d'Affaires A.I. of the Permanent Mission of the Netherlands to the United Nations Addressed to the Secretary General”, UN Doc. A/46/288, 8 July 1991, Annex.
107 UN General Assembly, “Letter Dated 16 August 1991 from the Permanent Representative of the Netherlands to the United Nations Addressed to the Secretary General”, UN Doc. A/46/194, 19 August 1991.
108 UN General Assembly, Provisional Verbatim Record of the 3rd Meeting, UN Doc. A/46/PV.3, 20 September 1991; UN General Assembly, Annotated Agenda of the Forty-Sixth Regular Session of the General Assembly, UN Doc. A/46/100/Add.1, 30 September 1991, para. 142.
109 Charter of the United Nations, 1 UNTS xvi, 26 June 1945 (entered into force 24 October 1945) (UN Charter), Art. 62(1).
110 Interview with J. Eliasson, above note 105.
111 ECOSOC, Resolutions and Decisions of the Economic and Social Council: Second Regular Session of 1991, Supp. 1A, UN Doc. E/1991/91/Add.1, 1992, p. 1.
112 Interview with J. Eliasson, above note 105.
113 ECOSOC, “Response of the United Nations to Emergencies: Summary Prepared by the Chairman of the Third (Programme and Coordination) Committee”, in Report of the Economic and Social Council for the Year 1991: General Assembly Forty-Sixth Session, Supp. 3, UN Doc. A/46/3/Rev.1, 1992, Annex IV.
114 Ibid. In addition to the deliberations in ECOSOC's Third Committee, Resolution 46/182 was also influenced by an October 1991 report by the UN Secretary-General reviewing the “Capacity, Experience and Coordination Arrangements in the UN System for Humanitarian Assistance” (UNGA Res. 46/182, above note 31, preambular para. 5). See Report of the Secretary-General on the Review of the Capacity, Experience and Coordination Arrangements in the UN System for Humanitarian Assistance, UN Doc. A/46/568, 17 October 1991.
115 Interview with J. Eliasson, above note 105.
116 The rationale for these topics is beyond the scope of this article; it is detailed in E. Tsui and T. Myint-u, above note 104.
117 Interview with J. Eliasson, above note 105.
118 Ibid.
119 Ibid.
120 Wynn-Pope, Phoebe, Zegenhagen, Yvette and Kurnadi, Fauve, “Legislating against Humanitarian Principles: A Case Study on the Humanitarian Implications of Australian Counterterrorism Legislation”, International Review of the Red Cross, Vol. 97, No. 897–898, 2016, p. 236Google Scholar.
121 Interview with J. Eliasson, above note 105.
122 Interview with E. Tsui, above note 35.
123 Ibid.
124 Email from Aurelien Buffler, Chief, Policy Advice and Planning Section, Operations and Advocacy Division, OCHA, to author, 25 October 2022 (on file with author).
125 UNGA Res. 45/100, above note 30.
126 UN General Assembly, Strengthening of the Coordination of the Humanitarian Emergency Assistance of the United Nations, UN Doc. A/46/L.55, 17 December 1991; UN General Assembly, Strengthening of the Coordination of the Humanitarian Emergency Assistance of the United Nations, UN Doc. A/46/L.55/Corr.1, 18 December 1991.
127 Paul Lewis, “UN to Centralize its Relief Efforts”, New York Times, 18 December 1991, p. A19.
128 Interview with J. Eliasson, above note 105.
129 K. Mačák, “A Matter of Principle(s)”, above note 5, p. 159. See also Emanuela-Chiara Gillard, “Framing the Conversation: Humanitarian Principles and the Law”, in Chatham House, The Normative Framework of Humanitarian Action in Armed Conflict: Workshop 1, Royal Institute of International Affairs, London, 2022, available at: https://chathamhouse.soutron.net/Portal/Public/en-GB/RecordView/Index/191239.
130 K. Mačák, “A Matter of Principle(s)”, above note 5, p. 159. Examples cited by Mačák include Sylvain Beauchamp, Defining the Humanitarian Space through Public International Law, On the Edges of Conflict Working Paper, 2008; Vincent Chetail, “The Contribution of the International Court of Justice to International Humanitarian Law”, International Review of the Red Cross, Vol. 85, No. 850, 2003.
131 K. Mačák, “A Matter of Principle(s)”, above note 5, p. 159.
132 P. Wynn-Pope, Y. Zegenhagen and F. Kurnadi, above note 120, p. 240.
133 E.-C. Gillard, above note 129, pp. 12–13.
134 Huma Haider, International Legal Frameworks for Humanitarian Action: Topic Guide, GSDRC, Birmingham, 2013, p. 25.
135 ILC, above note 41, para. 309.
136 ILC, Report of the International Law Commission on the Work of its Sixty-Third Session, UN Doc. A/66/10, 2011, para. 289(1).
137 Spieker, Heike, “Humanitarian Assistance, Access in Armed Conflict and Occupation”, in Rüdiger Wolfrum (ed.), Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2013, para. 1Google Scholar.
138 K. Mačák, “A Matter of Principle(s)”, above note 5, p. 159.
139 “Principle”, Oxford English Dictionary, 10 June 2022.
140 Bix, Brian, A Dictionary of Legal Theory, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2004, pp. 165–166CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
141 Statute of the International Court of Justice, 961 UNTS 183, 24 October 1945 (ICJ Statute), Art. 38(1)(c).
142 International Conference of the Red Cross, above note 76, p. 573.
143 H. Haug, above note 58, p. 446.
144 Red Cross Statutes, above note 79, Preamble (emphasis added).
145 H. Haug, above note 58, p. 447.
146 Red Cross Statutes, above note 79, Art. 2(4).
147 AP I, Art. 81(2)–(3).
148 GC IV, Art. 63.
149 GC I, Arts 3(2), 9; GC II, Arts 3(2), 9; GC III, Arts 3(2), 9; GC IV, Arts 3(2), 10; AP I, Art. 81(1).
150 Crawford, Emily and Pert, Alison, International Humanitarian Law, 2nd ed., Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2020, p. 277CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
151 International Conference of the Red Cross, above note 76.
152 J. Pictet, above note 53.
153 Ibid., p. 8.
154 Red Cross Statutes, above note 79, p. 5.
155 J. Pictet, above note 53, p. 14.
156 ICRC, Professional Standards for Protection Work, 3rd ed., Geneva, 2018, p. 24.
157 Red Cross Statutes, above note 79, p. 5.
158 J. Pictet, above note 53, p. 27.
159 Red Cross Statutes, above note 79, p. 5.
160 J. Pictet, above note 53, p. 34.
161 Imogen Foulkes, “Why the Red Cross Has to Be Neutral in the Ukraine Conflict”, BBC News, 29 March 2022, available at: www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-60921567.
162 J. Pictet, above note 53, p. 39.
163 Red Cross Statutes, above note 79, p. 5.
164 J. Pictet, above note 53, p. 40.
165 Ibid.
166 Ibid., pp. 43–45.
167 Ibid., p. 40.
168 Ibid., p. 41.
169 Ibid.
170 Ibid., pp. 41–42.
171 MSF, MSF Charter, available at: www.msf.org/msf-charter.
172 MSF, Chantilly Principles, 4 October 1995, available at: www.msf.org/sites/default/files/Principles%20Chantilly%20EN.pdf.
173 Abby Stoddard, Humanitarian NGOs: Challenges and Trends, Humanitarian Policy Group Briefing No. 12, Overseas Development Institute, London, 2003, p. 2, available at: https://odi.org/en/publications/humanitarian-ngos-challenges-and-trends/.
174 See also, regarding NIAC, AP II, Art. 18(2); and regarding occupation, GC IV, Art. 59.
175 Yves Sandoz, Christophe Swinarski and Bruno Zimmermann (eds), Commentary on the Additional Protocols, ICRC, Geneva, 1987, para. 4885, available at: https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/en/ihl-treaties/apii-1977/article-18/commentary/1987. See also Dapo Akande and Emanuela-Chiara Gillard, “Arbitrary Withholding of Consent to Humanitarian Relief Operations in Armed Conflict”, International Legal Studies, Vol. 92, 2016; Dapo Akande and Emanuela-Chiara Gillard, Oxford Guidance on the Law Relating to Humanitarian Relief Operations in Situations of Armed Conflict, OCHA and University of Oxford, 2016, available at: https://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/Oxford%20Guidance%20pdf.pdf.
176 See the sources cited elsewhere in this article, particularly at above notes 1 and 2, and Harroff-Tavel, Marion, “Neutrality and Impartiality: The Importance of these Principles for the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement and the Difficulties Involved in Applying Them”, International Review of the Red Cross, Vol. 873, No. 273, 1989Google Scholar; Slim, Hugo, “Relief Agencies and Moral Standing in War: Principles of Humanity, Neutrality, Impartiality and Solidarity”, Development in Practice, Vol. 7, No. 4, 1997CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Storey, Andy, “Non-Neutral Humanitarianism: NGOs and the Rwanda Crisis”, Development in Practice, Vol. 7, No. 4, 1997CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Leader, Nicholas, “Proliferating Principles; or How to Sup with the Devil without Getting Eaten”, Disasters, Vol. 22, No. 4, 1998CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed; Minear, Larry, “The Theory and Practice of Neutrality: Some Thoughts on the Tensions”, International Review of the Red Cross, Vol. 81, No. 833, 1999Google Scholar; Coupland, Robin, “Humanity: What Is It and How Does It Influence International Law?”, International Review of the Red Cross, Vol. 83, No. 844, 2001Google Scholar; Donini, Antonio, “Between a Rock and a Hard Place: Integration or Independence of Humanitarian Action”, International Review of the Red Cross, Vol. 93, No. 881, 2011CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Antonio Donini (ed.) The Golden Fleece: Manipulation and Independence in Humanitarian Action, Kumarian Press, Sterling, VA, 2012; Scott Paul and Elizabeth Holland, “Principled Humanitarian Organizations and the Use of Force: Is There Space to Speak Out?”, DePaul International Human Rights Law Journal, Vol. 1, No. 1, 2015; Heather Rysaback-Smith, “History and Principles of Humanitarian Action”, Turkish Journal of Emergency Medicine, Vol. 15, Supp. 1, 2015; Andrew Thompson, “Humanitarian Principles Put to the Test: Challenges to Humanitarian Action during Decolonization”, International Review of the Red Cross, Vol. 97, No. 897–898, 2016; Amelia B. Kyazze, “Walking the Walk: Evidence of Principles in Action from Red Cross and Red Crescent National Societies”, International Review of the Red Cross, Vol. 97, No. 897–898, 2016; Sophia Hoffmann, “Impartiality”, in Antonio De Lauri (ed.), Humanitarianism: Keywords, Brill, Leiden, 2020; Jon Harald Sande Lie, “The Humanitarian–Development Nexus: Humanitarian Principles, Practice, and Pragmatics”, Journal of International Humanitarian Action, Vol. 5, No. 18, 2020; Francesca Romeo, “Humanity”, in Antonio De Lauri (ed.), Humanitarianism: Keywords, Brill, Leiden, 2020; Tristan Ferraro, “International Humanitarian Law, Principled Humanitarian Action, Counterterrorism and Sanctions: Some Perspectives on Selected Issues”, International Review of the Red Cross, Vol. 103, No. 916–917, 2021.
177 The technical meaning of “UN system” is outlined above at note 29.
178 UNGA Res. 46/182, above note 31, preambular para. 4 (emphasis added).
179 Ibid., para. 1 (emphasis added).
180 Michael O'Flaherty, “The Human Rights Field Operation in Partnership for Humanitarian Relief and Reconstruction”, in Michael O'Flaherty (ed.), The Human Rights Field Operation: Law, Theory and Practice, Ashgate, Hampshire, 2007, p. 160.
181 UN Charter, above note 109, Art. 10.
182 Rosalyn Higgins, Philippa Webb, Dapo Akande, Sandesh Sivakumaran and James Sloan, Oppenheim's International Law: United Nations, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2017, p. 51. See also ICJ, Legal Consequences for States of the Continued Presence of South Africa in Namibia (South West Africa) notwithstanding Security Council Resolution 276 (1970), Advisory Opinion, ICJ Reports 1971, para. 105.
183 Ibid., para. 53; UN Charter, above note 109, Art. 101(1).
184 UNGA Res. 46/182, above note 31, Annex, paras 34, 36.
185 UN Charter, above note 109, Art. 22.
186 UNGA Res. 57 (I), 11 December 1946.
187 UNGA Res. 2029 (XX), 22 November 1965.
188 UNGA Res. 3019 (XXVII), 18 December 1972.
189 UNGA Res. 1714 (XVI), 19 December 1961.
190 UNGA Res. 428 (V), 14 December 1950.
191 UNGA Res. 302 (IV), 8 December 1949.
192 UNGA Res. 428 (V), above note 190, Annex, paras 1, 3.
193 UNHCR, above note 16.
194 UNGA Res. 302 (IV), above note 191, para. 8.
195 Ibid., para. 9(3).
196 UNGA Res. 48/162, 14 January 1994, Annex, para. 21 (emphasis added).
197 UNICEF, Core Commitments for Children in Humanitarian Action, 2020, p. 10, available at: www.unicef.org/media/87611/file/Core%20Commitments%20for%20Children%20(English).pdf; further examples are provided in Annex 3 below.
198 UNGA Res. 50/8, 1 November 1995, para 1.
199 UNGA Res. 48/162, above note 196, Annex, para. 30.
200 WFP, Ethics in WFP, 2020, p. 3, available at: https://docs.wfp.org/api/documents/WFP-0000120630/download/.
201 UNGA Res. 58/114, above note 33, preambular para. 5.
202 Richard Gardiner, Treaty Interpretation, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2010, p. 186.
203 See, for example, UNGA Res. 76/124, 17 December 2021, para. 5.
204 Email from A. Buffler, above note 124.
205 UNGA Res. 428 (V), above note 190, Annex, para. 2.
206 On the meanings of these terms, see Sugino Kyoichi, “The ‘Non-Political and Humanitarian’ Clause in UNHCR's Statute”, Refugee Survey Quarterly, Vol. 17, No. 1, 1998.
207 UNGA Res. 58/114, above note 33, preambular para. 5.
208 See, for example, UNGA Res. 59/141, 15 December 2004, preambular para. 4; UNGA Res. 60/125, 15 December 2005, preambular para. 3; UNGA Res. 60/124, 15 December 2005, preambular para. 5.
209 See, for example, “Protection”, in UNHCR, above note 16; UNICEF, above note 197, p. 10; UNRWA, “Humanitarian Principles”, available at: www.unrwa.org/humanitarian-principles; WFP, above note 200, p. 3.
210 ILC, above note 136, paras 289(3)–(7).
211 UNGA Res. 46/182, above note 31, Annex, para. 3 (emphasis added). Eliasson described the language of “should” (cf. “must”) as a victory in the negotiation of Resolution 46/182: interview with J. Eliasson, above note 105.
212 UNGA Res. 46/182, above note 31, Annex, para. 4 (emphasis added).
213 ICJ Statute, above note 141, Art. 38(1).
214 K. Mačák, “A Matter of Principle(s)”, above note 5.
215 The principle of humane treatment is expressed in common Article 3 and in Article 27 GC IV, and requires that civilians are always treated humanely. On the Martens Clause, see Meron, Theodor, “The Martens Clause, Principles of Humanity, and Dictates of Public Conscience”, American Journal of International Law, Vol. 94, No. 1, 2000Google Scholar; Yoram Dinstein, “The Principle of Proportionality”, in Kjetil Mujezinović Larsen, Camilla Guldahl Cooper and Gro Nystuen (eds), Searching for a “Principle of Humanity” in International Humanitarian Law, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2013; Crawford, Emily, “The Modern Relevance of the Martens Clause”, ISIL Yearbook of International Humanitarian and Refugee Law, Vol. 6, 2006Google Scholar.
216 AP I, Art. 70(1); AP II, Art. 18(2).
217 Jean-Marie Henckaerts and Louise Doswald-Beck (eds), Customary International Humanitarian Law, Vol. 1: Rules, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2005 (ICRC Customary Law Study), Rule 55, available at: https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/customary-ihl/eng/docs/v1.
218 Fitzmaurice, Gerald, The Law and Procedure of the International Court of Justice, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1986, p. 4Google Scholar; Melzer, Nils, Targeted Killing in International Law, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2008, p. 187CrossRefGoogle Scholar, cited in K. Mačák, “A Matter of Principle(s)”, above note 5, p. 174.
219 ICJ, Corfu Channel Case (United Kingdom v. Albania), Judgment, ICJ Reports 1949, p. 4.
220 K. Mačák, “A Matter of Principle(s)”, above note 5, p. 175.
221 Ibid.
222 Jochen Frowein, “United Nations”, in R. Wolfrum (ed.), above note 137, para. 34.
223 Email from A. Buffler, above note 124.
224 TFEU, above note 42, Art. 214(2).
225 UK Department for International Development, Saving Lives, Building Resilience, Reforming the System: The UK Government's Humanitarian Reform Policy, 2017, p. 9 (emphasis added), available at: https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/659965/UK-Humanitarian-Reform-Policy1.pdf.
226 US Agency for International Development, Office of US Foreign Disaster Assistance, Policy for Humanitarian Action, 2015, p. 4, available at: https://2012-2017.usaid.gov/sites/default/files/documents/1866/Humanitarian%20Policy%20Framework_digital.pdf.
227 Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark, The World 2030: Denmark's Strategy for Development Cooperation and Humanitarian Action, 2017, p. 21, available at: https://uganda.um.dk/en/-/media/country-sites/uganda-en/front-page/the-world-2030-denmarks-strategy-for-development-cooperation-and-humanitarian-action.ashx; Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Finland, Finland's Humanitarian Policy, 2012, pp. 11–12, available at: https://um.fi/documents/35732/48132/finlands_humanitarian_policy; French Minister for Europe and Foreign Affairs, France's Humanitarian Strategy, 2018, p. 8, available at: www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/IMG/pdf/strategie_humanitaire_2018-_eng_cle4c3b27-3.pdf.
228 German Federal Foreign Office, Federal Foreign Office Strategy for Humanitarian Assistance Abroad, 2019, pp. 13, 15, available at: https://tinyurl.com/7ae4wb34.
229 UN Charter, above note 109, Arts 25, 103; ICJ, South West Africa, above note 182, paras 113–114.
230 See, for example, UNSC Res. 2060, 25 July 2012, para. 6; UNSC Res. 2113, 30 July 2013, para. 16; UNSC Res. 2230, 14 July 2015, para. 23; UNSC Res. 2277, 30 March 2016, para. 41; UNSC Res. 2296, 29 June 2016, para. 22.
231 UNSC Res. 2113, 30 July 2013, para. 16; see also UNSC Res. 2134, 28 January 2014, para. 26. OCHA worked with the Security Council over the years to promote more accurate language in its resolutions relating to humanitarian principles (review comment from Emanuela-Chiara Gillard, former OCHA staff, to author, 25 July 2023 (on file with author)).
232 UNSC Res. 1341, 22 February 2001, para. 12.
233 UNSC Res. 1894, 11 November 2009, para. 13.
234 UNSC Res. 2474, 11 June 2019, preambular para. 15; see also UNSC Res. 2286, 3 May 2016, preambular para. 15. For further examples of Security Council resolutions relating to the humanitarian principles, see OCHA, Aide Memoire: For the Consideration of Issues Pertaining to the Protection of Civilians in Armed Conflict, 2016, pp. 94–98.
235 ICJ, Nicaragua, above note 8, para. 242.
236 For detailed analysis of the impact of Nicaragua on the meaning of impartiality and neutrality in humanitarian action, see F. Kalshoven, above note 5.
237 In this and the other Annexes, footnote citations are provided if the information is not already cited in the main text.
238 Good Humanitarian Donorship Initiative, 24 Principles and Good Practice of Humanitarian Donorship, 2003, available at: www.ghdinitiative.org/assets/files/GHD%20Principles%20and%20Good%20Practice/GHD%20Principles.pdf.
239 UNFPA, Minimum Standards for Prevention and Response to Gender-Based Violence in Emergencies, 2015, available at: www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/GBVIE.Minimum.Standards.Publication.FINAL_.ENG_.pdf.
240 CHS Alliance, Core Humanitarian Standard on Quality and Accountability, Group URD and the Sphere Project, 2014, available at: https://d1h79zlghft2zs.cloudfront.net/uploads/2020/06/Core_Humanitarian_Standard-English.pdf.
241 IFRC, Guidelines for the Domestic Facilitation and Regulation of International Disaster Relief and Initial Recovery Assistance, adopted in 2007, Geneva, 2017, available at: https://disasterlaw.ifrc.org/sites/default/files/media/disaster_law/2020-09/1205600-IDRL-Guidelines-EN-LR.pdf.
242 IRC, The IRC Way: Our Standards of Professional Conduct, available at: www.rescue.org/sites/default/files/document/2802/englishirc-waycode-conducta4final.pdf.
243 Norwegian Refugee Council, NRC Policy, available at: www.nrc.no/globalassets/pdf/policy-documents/nrc-policy-paper_web.pdf.
244 Save the Children, “Humanitarian Response Policy and Advocacy”, available at: www.savethechildren.org/us/what-we-do/global-policy-advocacy/humanitarian-crises.
245 Government of Canada, “About Humanitarian Assistance”, 30 September 2020, available at: www.international.gc.ca/world-monde/issues_development-enjeux_developpement/response_conflict-reponse_conflits/about_humanitarian-a_propos_humanitaire.aspx?lang=eng.
246 See UNRWA, “Humanitarian Principles”, available at: www.unrwa.org/humanitarian-principles.