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“Iranian Conditions: Health Problems and Medical Practices in the Words of the Staff of the Alliance Israélite Universelle, 1900–1950”
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 05 June 2023
Abstract
The staff of the Alliance Israélite Universelle (AIU), an international educational philanthropy, were professionally and personally buffeted by health and medical concerns. This article examines the value of their letters, arguing they serve as a deep reservoir of biased yet valuable evidence that corroborates other sources while also providing insight into the health and disease conditions of Iran's provincial cities. This article also asks why, in the early twentieth century, AIU staff failed to acknowledge Iranians who were similarly invested in medical services and public hygiene. Ultimately, the letters help scholars witness historical evolutions in Iran and in the AIU staff's understandings of the Iranian social and medical landscape they inhabited.
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- Copyright © The Author(s), 2023. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of the Association for Iranian Studies
References
Bibliography
Alliance Israélite Universelle Archives historiques (AIUAH) (1898–1939). These collections may be downloaded from the Harvard University Libraries.Google Scholar
Alliance Israélite Universelle Archives modernes (AIUAM) (1940–Present), Paris, France.Google Scholar
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Afkhami, Amir Arsalan. “Health in Persia iii. Qajar Period.” In Encyclopaedia Iranica. Accessed February 24, 2019. http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/health-in-persia-iii.Google Scholar
Aisenberg, Andrew Robert. Contagion: Disease, Government, and the “Social Question” in Nineteenth-Century France. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1999.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Amanat, Mehrdad. Jewish Identities in Iran: Resistance and Conversion to Islam and the Baha'i Faith. Library of Modern Religion 9. London; New York: I.B. Tauris, 2011.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barmaïmon, Isaac. “History of the AIU School in Hamadan, Iran, 1900-1921.” Unpublished Manuscript, 1951. Alliance Israélite Universelle. https://buildingjewishschooliran.wordpress.com/manuscript/.Google Scholar
Berberian, Houri. “Armenian Women in Turn-of-the-Century Iran: Education and Activism.” In Iran and Beyond: Essays in Middle Eastern History in Honor of Nikki R. Keddie, edited by Matthee, Rudolph P. and Baron, Beth, 70–98. Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda Publishers, 2000.Google Scholar
Berberian, Houri. Armenians and the Iranian Constitutional Revolution of 1905–1911: “The Love for Freedom Has No Fatherland.” New York: Routledge, 2018.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chouraqui, André. L'Alliance Israélite Universelle et La Renaissance Juive Contemporaine, 1860–1960: Cent Ans d'histoire. 1. éd. Paris: Presses universitaires de France, 1965.Google Scholar
Cohen, Avraham. “Iranian Jewry and the Educational Endeavors of the Alliance Israélite Universelle.” Jewish Social Studies 48, no. 1 (1986): 15–44.Google Scholar
Cooper, Frederick, and Stoler, Ann Laura, eds. Tensions of Empire: Colonial Cultures in a Bourgeois World. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ebrahimnejad, Hormoz. Medicine in Iran: Profession, Practice and Politics, 1800–1925. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2015.Google Scholar
Eshaghian, Elias, and Goel, Cohen. Hamrah Ba Farhang. A Follower of Culture: Brief History of the Alliance Israelite Universelle in Iran. Memoirs of Elias Eshaghian. Sina Research-Based Publications. Los Angeles, CA: H.S. Mortazavi Co., 2008.Google Scholar
Farah, Daniella Leah. “Forming Iranian Jewish Identities: Education, National Belonging, the Jewish Press, and Integration, 1945–1981.” Dissertation, 2021.Google Scholar
Farah, Daniella L. “‘The School Is the Link Between the Jewish Community and the Surrounding Milieu’: Education and the Jews of Iran from the Mid-1940s to the Late 1960s.” Middle Eastern Studies 57, no. 5 (2021): 793–809.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gleave, Robert. “The Clergy and the British: Perceptions of Religion and the Ulama in Early Qajar Iran.” In Anglo-Iranian Relations Since 1800, edited by Martin, Vanessa, 1st ed. Royal Asiatic Society Books. London; Routledge, 2005.Google Scholar
Gleeson, Kristin L. “The Stethoscope and the Gospel: Presbyterian Foreign Medical Missions, 1840–1900.” American Presbyterians 71, no. 2 (1993): 127–38.Google Scholar
Haseldine, Julian. “Friendship, Intimacy and Corporate Networking in the Twelfth Century: The Politics of Friendship in the Letters of Peter the Venerable.” The English Historical Review 126, no. 519 (2011): 251–80.10.1093/ehr/cer077CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Headrick, Isabelle S. “A Family in Iran: Women Teachers, Minority Integration, and Family Networks in the Jewish Schools of the Alliance Israélite Universelle in Iran, 1900–1950.” The Journal of the Middle East and Africa 10, no. 4 (October 2, 2019): 307–22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Headrick, Isabelle S. “From Disagreement to Harmony? The Evolution of the Alliance Israélite Universelle's Relationship with Zionism in Iran, 1898-1960.” Presented at the American Joint Distribution Committee Scholars' Workshop: “The Work of the JDC and other International Jewish Organizations in Islamic Countries,” Virtual, September 1, 2020.Google Scholar
Headrick, Isabelle S. “The Web in the Tempest: The Experiences of the Teachers and School Directors of the Alliance Israélite Universelle during the Iranian Constitutional Revolution, 1906–11.” Jewish Social Studies: History, Culture, Society n.s. 27, no. 2 (Spring/Summer 2022): 89–116.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Heuser, Frederick J. “Presbyterian Women and the Missionary Call, 1870–1923.” American Presbyterians 73, no. 1 (1995): 23–34.Google Scholar
Heuser, Frederick J. “Women's Work for Women: Belle Sherwood Hawkes and the East Persia Presbyterian Mission.” American Presbyterians 65, no. 1 (1987): 7–17.Google Scholar
Kashani-Sabet, Firoozeh. Conceiving Citizens: Women and the Politics of Motherhood in Iran. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press, 2011.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kaspi, André, and Assan, Valérie, eds. Histoire de l'Alliance Israélite Universelle de 1860 à Nos Jours. Paris: A. Colin, 2010.Google Scholar
Katz, Ethan B., Leff, Lisa Moses, and Mandel, Maud S.. Colonialism and the Jews. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2017.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Koyagi, Mikiya. “The History of Presbyterian Medical Mission in Iran.” Unpublished Manuscript, 2006.Google Scholar
Leff, Lisa Moses. Sacred Bonds of Solidarity: The Rise of Jewish Internationalism in Nineteenth-Century France. Stanford Studies in Jewish History and Culture. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2006.Google Scholar
Leven, Narcisse. Cinquante ans d'histoire: L'Alliance Israélite Universelle (1860 - 1910). Vol. 1. Paris: Librairie Félix Alcan, 1911.Google Scholar
Mahdavi, Shireen. “Shahs, Doctors, Diplomats and Missionaries in 19th Century Iran.” British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies 32, no. 2 (2005): 169–91.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Malino, Frances. “Oriental, Feminist, Orientalist: The New Jewish Woman.” In Colonialism and the Jews, edited by Katz, Ethan B., Leff, Lisa Moses, and Mandel, Maud S., 101–15. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2017.10.2307/j.ctt1zxz145.8CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Malino, Frances. “Prophets in Their Own Land? Mothers and Daughters of the Alliance Israélite Universelle.” Nashim: A Journal of Jewish Women's Studies & Gender Issues, no. 3 (2000): 56–73.Google Scholar
Mayo, Clinic. “Seborrheic Dermatitis - Symptoms and Causes.” Accessed March 19, 2023. https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/seborrheic-dermatitis/symptoms-causes/syc-20352710.Google Scholar
Netzer, A. “Alliance Israélite Universelle.” In Encyclopaedia Iranica, I:893–95. 8, 2011. https://iranicaonline.org/articles/alliance-israelite-universelle.Google Scholar
Netzer, Amnon. “Iran.” In Zionism in Transition, edited by Davis, Moshe, 1st ed., 225–32. Continuing Seminar on World Jewry, v. 3. New York: Arno Press, 1980.Google Scholar
Omidsalar, Mahmoud. “Divination.” In Encyclopaedia Iranica, VII:440–43, 1995. https://iranicaonline.org/articles/divination.Google Scholar
Parks, Richard C. Medical Imperialism in French North Africa: Regenerating the Jewish Community of Colonial Tunis. France Overseas: Studies in Empire and Decolonization. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 2017.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rafati, V. “Bahaism: V. The Bahai Community in Iran.” In Encyclopaedia Iranica, III, Fasc. 5:454–60, 2011. https://iranicaonline.org/articles/bahaism-v.Google Scholar
Ringer, Monica M. Pious Citizens: Reforming Zoroastrianism in India and Iran. 1st ed. Modern Intellectual and Political History of the Middle East. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 2011.Google Scholar
Rodrigue, Aron. French Jews, Turkish Jews: The Alliance Israélite Universelle and the Politics of Jewish Schooling in Turkey, 1860-1925. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1990.Google Scholar
Rodrigue, Aron. Jews and Muslims: Images of Sephardi and Eastern Jewries in Modern Times. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2003.Google Scholar
Rostam-Kolayi, Jasamin. “From Evangelizing to Modernizing Iranians: The American Presbyterian Mission and Its Iranian Students.” Iranian Studies 41, no. 2 (2008): 213–39.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rostam-Kolayi, Jasamin. “Origins of Iran's Modern Girls’ Schools: From Private/National to Public/State.” Journal of Middle East Women's Studies 4, no. 3 (October 2008): 58–88.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schayegh, Cyrus. Who Is Knowledgeable Is Strong: Science, Class, and the Formation of Modern Iranian Society, 1900–1950. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2009.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sciarcon, Jonathan. Educational Oases in the Desert: The Alliance Israélite Universelle's Girls’ Schools in Ottoman Iraq, 1895–1915. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 2017.Google Scholar
Shapiro, Ann-Louise. Housing the Poor of Paris, 1850-1902. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 1985.Google Scholar
Smith, Rachel. “The Racial Politics of the Alliance Israélite Universelle.” Jewish Quarterly Review, forthcoming.Google Scholar
Stanley, Liz. “The Epistolarium: On Theorizing Letters and Correspondences.” Auto/Biography 12 (September 1, 2004): 201–35.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sternfeld, Lior B. Between Iran and Zion: Jewish Histories of Twentieth-Century Iran. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2019.Google Scholar
Tsadik, Daniel. Between Foreigners and Shi'is: Nineteenth-Century Iran and Its Jewish Minority. Stanford Studies in Jewish History and Culture. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2007.Google Scholar
Varlik, Nükhet, ed. Plague and Contagion in the Islamic Mediterranean. Black Sea World. Newark: Rutgers University, 2017.Google Scholar
Weiss, Hilda P. Les enquêtes ouvrières en France entre 1830 et 1848. European sociology. New York: Arno Press, 1975.Google Scholar
Zirinsky, Michael P. “A Panacea for the Ills of the Country: American Presbyterian Education in Interwar Iran.” American Presbyterians 72, no. 3 (1994): 187–201.Google Scholar
Zirinsky, Michael P. “Harbingers of Change: Presbyterian Women in Iran, 1883–1949.” American Presbyterians 70, no. 3 (1992): 173–86.Google Scholar
Zirinsky, Michael P. “Render Therefore Unto Caesar the Things Which Are Caesar's: American Presbyterian Educators and Reza Shah.” Iranian Studies 26, no. 3/4 (1993): 337–56.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ziya, Mohammad Hossein. “The Role of Divination in Iranian Governance.” Middle East Institute, December 20, 2021. https://www.mei.edu/publications/role-divination-iranian-governance.Google Scholar
Alliance Israélite Universelle Archives historiques (AIUAH) (1898–1939). These collections may be downloaded from the Harvard University Libraries.Google Scholar
Alliance Israélite Universelle Archives modernes (AIUAM) (1940–Present), Paris, France.Google Scholar
Abrahamian, Ervand. A History of Modern Iran. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press, 2018.10.1017/9781108182348CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Afkhami, Amir. “Compromised Constitutions: The Iranian Experience with the 1918 Influenza Pandemic.” Bulletin of the History of Medicine 77, no. 2 (2003): 367–92.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Afkhami, Amir Arsalan. “Health in Persia iii. Qajar Period.” In Encyclopaedia Iranica. Accessed February 24, 2019. http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/health-in-persia-iii.Google Scholar
Aisenberg, Andrew Robert. Contagion: Disease, Government, and the “Social Question” in Nineteenth-Century France. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1999.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Amanat, Mehrdad. Jewish Identities in Iran: Resistance and Conversion to Islam and the Baha'i Faith. Library of Modern Religion 9. London; New York: I.B. Tauris, 2011.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barmaïmon, Isaac. “History of the AIU School in Hamadan, Iran, 1900-1921.” Unpublished Manuscript, 1951. Alliance Israélite Universelle. https://buildingjewishschooliran.wordpress.com/manuscript/.Google Scholar
Berberian, Houri. “Armenian Women in Turn-of-the-Century Iran: Education and Activism.” In Iran and Beyond: Essays in Middle Eastern History in Honor of Nikki R. Keddie, edited by Matthee, Rudolph P. and Baron, Beth, 70–98. Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda Publishers, 2000.Google Scholar
Berberian, Houri. Armenians and the Iranian Constitutional Revolution of 1905–1911: “The Love for Freedom Has No Fatherland.” New York: Routledge, 2018.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chouraqui, André. L'Alliance Israélite Universelle et La Renaissance Juive Contemporaine, 1860–1960: Cent Ans d'histoire. 1. éd. Paris: Presses universitaires de France, 1965.Google Scholar
Cohen, Avraham. “Iranian Jewry and the Educational Endeavors of the Alliance Israélite Universelle.” Jewish Social Studies 48, no. 1 (1986): 15–44.Google Scholar
Cooper, Frederick, and Stoler, Ann Laura, eds. Tensions of Empire: Colonial Cultures in a Bourgeois World. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ebrahimnejad, Hormoz. Medicine in Iran: Profession, Practice and Politics, 1800–1925. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2015.Google Scholar
Eshaghian, Elias, and Goel, Cohen. Hamrah Ba Farhang. A Follower of Culture: Brief History of the Alliance Israelite Universelle in Iran. Memoirs of Elias Eshaghian. Sina Research-Based Publications. Los Angeles, CA: H.S. Mortazavi Co., 2008.Google Scholar
Farah, Daniella Leah. “Forming Iranian Jewish Identities: Education, National Belonging, the Jewish Press, and Integration, 1945–1981.” Dissertation, 2021.Google Scholar
Farah, Daniella L. “‘The School Is the Link Between the Jewish Community and the Surrounding Milieu’: Education and the Jews of Iran from the Mid-1940s to the Late 1960s.” Middle Eastern Studies 57, no. 5 (2021): 793–809.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gleave, Robert. “The Clergy and the British: Perceptions of Religion and the Ulama in Early Qajar Iran.” In Anglo-Iranian Relations Since 1800, edited by Martin, Vanessa, 1st ed. Royal Asiatic Society Books. London; Routledge, 2005.Google Scholar
Gleeson, Kristin L. “The Stethoscope and the Gospel: Presbyterian Foreign Medical Missions, 1840–1900.” American Presbyterians 71, no. 2 (1993): 127–38.Google Scholar
Haseldine, Julian. “Friendship, Intimacy and Corporate Networking in the Twelfth Century: The Politics of Friendship in the Letters of Peter the Venerable.” The English Historical Review 126, no. 519 (2011): 251–80.10.1093/ehr/cer077CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Headrick, Isabelle S. “A Family in Iran: Women Teachers, Minority Integration, and Family Networks in the Jewish Schools of the Alliance Israélite Universelle in Iran, 1900–1950.” The Journal of the Middle East and Africa 10, no. 4 (October 2, 2019): 307–22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Headrick, Isabelle S. “From Disagreement to Harmony? The Evolution of the Alliance Israélite Universelle's Relationship with Zionism in Iran, 1898-1960.” Presented at the American Joint Distribution Committee Scholars' Workshop: “The Work of the JDC and other International Jewish Organizations in Islamic Countries,” Virtual, September 1, 2020.Google Scholar
Headrick, Isabelle S. “The Web in the Tempest: The Experiences of the Teachers and School Directors of the Alliance Israélite Universelle during the Iranian Constitutional Revolution, 1906–11.” Jewish Social Studies: History, Culture, Society n.s. 27, no. 2 (Spring/Summer 2022): 89–116.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Heuser, Frederick J. “Presbyterian Women and the Missionary Call, 1870–1923.” American Presbyterians 73, no. 1 (1995): 23–34.Google Scholar
Heuser, Frederick J. “Women's Work for Women: Belle Sherwood Hawkes and the East Persia Presbyterian Mission.” American Presbyterians 65, no. 1 (1987): 7–17.Google Scholar
Kashani-Sabet, Firoozeh. Conceiving Citizens: Women and the Politics of Motherhood in Iran. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press, 2011.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kaspi, André, and Assan, Valérie, eds. Histoire de l'Alliance Israélite Universelle de 1860 à Nos Jours. Paris: A. Colin, 2010.Google Scholar
Katz, Ethan B., Leff, Lisa Moses, and Mandel, Maud S.. Colonialism and the Jews. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2017.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Koyagi, Mikiya. “The History of Presbyterian Medical Mission in Iran.” Unpublished Manuscript, 2006.Google Scholar
Leff, Lisa Moses. Sacred Bonds of Solidarity: The Rise of Jewish Internationalism in Nineteenth-Century France. Stanford Studies in Jewish History and Culture. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2006.Google Scholar
Leven, Narcisse. Cinquante ans d'histoire: L'Alliance Israélite Universelle (1860 - 1910). Vol. 1. Paris: Librairie Félix Alcan, 1911.Google Scholar
Mahdavi, Shireen. “Shahs, Doctors, Diplomats and Missionaries in 19th Century Iran.” British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies 32, no. 2 (2005): 169–91.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Malino, Frances. “Oriental, Feminist, Orientalist: The New Jewish Woman.” In Colonialism and the Jews, edited by Katz, Ethan B., Leff, Lisa Moses, and Mandel, Maud S., 101–15. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2017.10.2307/j.ctt1zxz145.8CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Malino, Frances. “Prophets in Their Own Land? Mothers and Daughters of the Alliance Israélite Universelle.” Nashim: A Journal of Jewish Women's Studies & Gender Issues, no. 3 (2000): 56–73.Google Scholar
Mayo, Clinic. “Seborrheic Dermatitis - Symptoms and Causes.” Accessed March 19, 2023. https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/seborrheic-dermatitis/symptoms-causes/syc-20352710.Google Scholar
Netzer, A. “Alliance Israélite Universelle.” In Encyclopaedia Iranica, I:893–95. 8, 2011. https://iranicaonline.org/articles/alliance-israelite-universelle.Google Scholar
Netzer, Amnon. “Iran.” In Zionism in Transition, edited by Davis, Moshe, 1st ed., 225–32. Continuing Seminar on World Jewry, v. 3. New York: Arno Press, 1980.Google Scholar
Omidsalar, Mahmoud. “Divination.” In Encyclopaedia Iranica, VII:440–43, 1995. https://iranicaonline.org/articles/divination.Google Scholar
Parks, Richard C. Medical Imperialism in French North Africa: Regenerating the Jewish Community of Colonial Tunis. France Overseas: Studies in Empire and Decolonization. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 2017.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rafati, V. “Bahaism: V. The Bahai Community in Iran.” In Encyclopaedia Iranica, III, Fasc. 5:454–60, 2011. https://iranicaonline.org/articles/bahaism-v.Google Scholar
Ringer, Monica M. Pious Citizens: Reforming Zoroastrianism in India and Iran. 1st ed. Modern Intellectual and Political History of the Middle East. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 2011.Google Scholar
Rodrigue, Aron. French Jews, Turkish Jews: The Alliance Israélite Universelle and the Politics of Jewish Schooling in Turkey, 1860-1925. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1990.Google Scholar
Rodrigue, Aron. Jews and Muslims: Images of Sephardi and Eastern Jewries in Modern Times. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2003.Google Scholar
Rostam-Kolayi, Jasamin. “From Evangelizing to Modernizing Iranians: The American Presbyterian Mission and Its Iranian Students.” Iranian Studies 41, no. 2 (2008): 213–39.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rostam-Kolayi, Jasamin. “Origins of Iran's Modern Girls’ Schools: From Private/National to Public/State.” Journal of Middle East Women's Studies 4, no. 3 (October 2008): 58–88.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schayegh, Cyrus. Who Is Knowledgeable Is Strong: Science, Class, and the Formation of Modern Iranian Society, 1900–1950. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2009.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sciarcon, Jonathan. Educational Oases in the Desert: The Alliance Israélite Universelle's Girls’ Schools in Ottoman Iraq, 1895–1915. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 2017.Google Scholar
Shapiro, Ann-Louise. Housing the Poor of Paris, 1850-1902. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 1985.Google Scholar
Smith, Rachel. “The Racial Politics of the Alliance Israélite Universelle.” Jewish Quarterly Review, forthcoming.Google Scholar
Stanley, Liz. “The Epistolarium: On Theorizing Letters and Correspondences.” Auto/Biography 12 (September 1, 2004): 201–35.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sternfeld, Lior B. Between Iran and Zion: Jewish Histories of Twentieth-Century Iran. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2019.Google Scholar
Tsadik, Daniel. Between Foreigners and Shi'is: Nineteenth-Century Iran and Its Jewish Minority. Stanford Studies in Jewish History and Culture. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2007.Google Scholar
Varlik, Nükhet, ed. Plague and Contagion in the Islamic Mediterranean. Black Sea World. Newark: Rutgers University, 2017.Google Scholar
Weiss, Hilda P. Les enquêtes ouvrières en France entre 1830 et 1848. European sociology. New York: Arno Press, 1975.Google Scholar
Zirinsky, Michael P. “A Panacea for the Ills of the Country: American Presbyterian Education in Interwar Iran.” American Presbyterians 72, no. 3 (1994): 187–201.Google Scholar
Zirinsky, Michael P. “Harbingers of Change: Presbyterian Women in Iran, 1883–1949.” American Presbyterians 70, no. 3 (1992): 173–86.Google Scholar
Zirinsky, Michael P. “Render Therefore Unto Caesar the Things Which Are Caesar's: American Presbyterian Educators and Reza Shah.” Iranian Studies 26, no. 3/4 (1993): 337–56.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ziya, Mohammad Hossein. “The Role of Divination in Iranian Governance.” Middle East Institute, December 20, 2021. https://www.mei.edu/publications/role-divination-iranian-governance.Google Scholar
Abrahamian, Ervand. A History of Modern Iran. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press, 2018.10.1017/9781108182348CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Afkhami, Amir. “Compromised Constitutions: The Iranian Experience with the 1918 Influenza Pandemic.” Bulletin of the History of Medicine 77, no. 2 (2003): 367–92.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Afkhami, Amir Arsalan. “Health in Persia iii. Qajar Period.” In Encyclopaedia Iranica. Accessed February 24, 2019. http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/health-in-persia-iii.Google Scholar
Aisenberg, Andrew Robert. Contagion: Disease, Government, and the “Social Question” in Nineteenth-Century France. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1999.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Amanat, Mehrdad. Jewish Identities in Iran: Resistance and Conversion to Islam and the Baha'i Faith. Library of Modern Religion 9. London; New York: I.B. Tauris, 2011.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barmaïmon, Isaac. “History of the AIU School in Hamadan, Iran, 1900-1921.” Unpublished Manuscript, 1951. Alliance Israélite Universelle. https://buildingjewishschooliran.wordpress.com/manuscript/.Google Scholar
Berberian, Houri. “Armenian Women in Turn-of-the-Century Iran: Education and Activism.” In Iran and Beyond: Essays in Middle Eastern History in Honor of Nikki R. Keddie, edited by Matthee, Rudolph P. and Baron, Beth, 70–98. Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda Publishers, 2000.Google Scholar
Berberian, Houri. Armenians and the Iranian Constitutional Revolution of 1905–1911: “The Love for Freedom Has No Fatherland.” New York: Routledge, 2018.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chouraqui, André. L'Alliance Israélite Universelle et La Renaissance Juive Contemporaine, 1860–1960: Cent Ans d'histoire. 1. éd. Paris: Presses universitaires de France, 1965.Google Scholar
Cohen, Avraham. “Iranian Jewry and the Educational Endeavors of the Alliance Israélite Universelle.” Jewish Social Studies 48, no. 1 (1986): 15–44.Google Scholar
Cooper, Frederick, and Stoler, Ann Laura, eds. Tensions of Empire: Colonial Cultures in a Bourgeois World. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ebrahimnejad, Hormoz. Medicine in Iran: Profession, Practice and Politics, 1800–1925. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2015.Google Scholar
Eshaghian, Elias, and Goel, Cohen. Hamrah Ba Farhang. A Follower of Culture: Brief History of the Alliance Israelite Universelle in Iran. Memoirs of Elias Eshaghian. Sina Research-Based Publications. Los Angeles, CA: H.S. Mortazavi Co., 2008.Google Scholar
Farah, Daniella Leah. “Forming Iranian Jewish Identities: Education, National Belonging, the Jewish Press, and Integration, 1945–1981.” Dissertation, 2021.Google Scholar
Farah, Daniella L. “‘The School Is the Link Between the Jewish Community and the Surrounding Milieu’: Education and the Jews of Iran from the Mid-1940s to the Late 1960s.” Middle Eastern Studies 57, no. 5 (2021): 793–809.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gleave, Robert. “The Clergy and the British: Perceptions of Religion and the Ulama in Early Qajar Iran.” In Anglo-Iranian Relations Since 1800, edited by Martin, Vanessa, 1st ed. Royal Asiatic Society Books. London; Routledge, 2005.Google Scholar
Gleeson, Kristin L. “The Stethoscope and the Gospel: Presbyterian Foreign Medical Missions, 1840–1900.” American Presbyterians 71, no. 2 (1993): 127–38.Google Scholar
Haseldine, Julian. “Friendship, Intimacy and Corporate Networking in the Twelfth Century: The Politics of Friendship in the Letters of Peter the Venerable.” The English Historical Review 126, no. 519 (2011): 251–80.10.1093/ehr/cer077CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Headrick, Isabelle S. “A Family in Iran: Women Teachers, Minority Integration, and Family Networks in the Jewish Schools of the Alliance Israélite Universelle in Iran, 1900–1950.” The Journal of the Middle East and Africa 10, no. 4 (October 2, 2019): 307–22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Headrick, Isabelle S. “From Disagreement to Harmony? The Evolution of the Alliance Israélite Universelle's Relationship with Zionism in Iran, 1898-1960.” Presented at the American Joint Distribution Committee Scholars' Workshop: “The Work of the JDC and other International Jewish Organizations in Islamic Countries,” Virtual, September 1, 2020.Google Scholar
Headrick, Isabelle S. “The Web in the Tempest: The Experiences of the Teachers and School Directors of the Alliance Israélite Universelle during the Iranian Constitutional Revolution, 1906–11.” Jewish Social Studies: History, Culture, Society n.s. 27, no. 2 (Spring/Summer 2022): 89–116.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Heuser, Frederick J. “Presbyterian Women and the Missionary Call, 1870–1923.” American Presbyterians 73, no. 1 (1995): 23–34.Google Scholar
Heuser, Frederick J. “Women's Work for Women: Belle Sherwood Hawkes and the East Persia Presbyterian Mission.” American Presbyterians 65, no. 1 (1987): 7–17.Google Scholar
Kashani-Sabet, Firoozeh. Conceiving Citizens: Women and the Politics of Motherhood in Iran. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press, 2011.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kaspi, André, and Assan, Valérie, eds. Histoire de l'Alliance Israélite Universelle de 1860 à Nos Jours. Paris: A. Colin, 2010.Google Scholar
Katz, Ethan B., Leff, Lisa Moses, and Mandel, Maud S.. Colonialism and the Jews. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2017.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Koyagi, Mikiya. “The History of Presbyterian Medical Mission in Iran.” Unpublished Manuscript, 2006.Google Scholar
Leff, Lisa Moses. Sacred Bonds of Solidarity: The Rise of Jewish Internationalism in Nineteenth-Century France. Stanford Studies in Jewish History and Culture. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2006.Google Scholar
Leven, Narcisse. Cinquante ans d'histoire: L'Alliance Israélite Universelle (1860 - 1910). Vol. 1. Paris: Librairie Félix Alcan, 1911.Google Scholar
Mahdavi, Shireen. “Shahs, Doctors, Diplomats and Missionaries in 19th Century Iran.” British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies 32, no. 2 (2005): 169–91.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Malino, Frances. “Oriental, Feminist, Orientalist: The New Jewish Woman.” In Colonialism and the Jews, edited by Katz, Ethan B., Leff, Lisa Moses, and Mandel, Maud S., 101–15. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2017.10.2307/j.ctt1zxz145.8CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Malino, Frances. “Prophets in Their Own Land? Mothers and Daughters of the Alliance Israélite Universelle.” Nashim: A Journal of Jewish Women's Studies & Gender Issues, no. 3 (2000): 56–73.Google Scholar
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