1 Affirmation of the Principles of International Law Recognized by the Charter of the Nuremberg Tríbunal, U.N.G.A Res. 95(1), U.N. Doc. A/64/Add.1 (1946). See Gross, Leo, “Some Observations on the Draft Code of Offenses Against the Peace and Security of Mankind” (1983) 13 Is. Yrbk. Human Rights 9, 10Google Scholar; Williams, Sharon A., “The Draft Code of Offenses Against the Peace and Security of Mankind” in Bassiouni, M. Cherif, International Criminal Law (1985) vol. 1, p. 109Google Scholar [hereinafter cited as “Bassiouni, ICL”]. See also Reports of the International Law Commission, 34th-43rd Sess., infra n. 9.

2 Leo Gross, supra n. 1, at 10.

3 U.N.G.A. Res. 174 (II), U.N. Doc. A/519, at 105–10 (1947).

4 U.N.G.A. Res. 177 (II), U.N. Doc. A/CN.4/4, at 9 (1947).

5 (1949) 1 Y.B. In'l L. Comm'n, referring to G. A. Res. 177 (II), supra n. 4, and on the basis of G.A. Res. 95(1), supra n. 1.

6 (1950) 2 Y.B. In'l L. Comm'n; U.N. Doc. A/CN.4/25 (1950).

7 At its thirty-ninth session in 1987, the International Law Commission amended the title of the English text of the “Draft Code” from “Draft Code of Offenses Against the Peace and Security of Mankind” to “Draft Code of Crimes against the Peace and Security of Mankind”. Report of the International Law Commission, 40th Secs., U.N. GAOR Supp. No. 10, at 145, U.N. Doc. A/43/10 (1988).

8 Acts which are deemed international crimes under existing international conventions: aggression, war crimes, unlawful use of weapons (as a war crime), genocide, crimes against humanity, racial discrimination and apartheid, slavery and related crimes, torture (as a war crime), unlawful human experimentation (as a war crime), piracy, aircraft hijacking, crimes against the safety of international maritime navigation, threat and use of force against internationally protected persons, taking of civilian hostages, drug offenses, international traffic in obscene publications, destruction and/or theft of national treasures (in times of war, and in some ways in time of peace), environmental protection (some aspects thereof), theft of nuclear materiale, unlawful use of mails, interference with submarine cables, mercenarism, and falsifying and counterfeiting. Bassiouni, M. Cherif, International Crimes: Digest/Index of International Instruments 1815–1985 (1985) 2 vols.Google Scholar

9 This position has been consistent from the first adopted draft in 1954 to the latest annual session of the International Law Commission, the 43rd Session, 29 April -19 July (1991). It should be noted that Article 6 of the 1991 “Draft Code” does address state responsibility, however, this provision only states that prosecution of an individual does not preclude prosecution of a state for the same crime, if international law has allowed for state criminal responsibility for that crime. See Report of the International Law Commission, 43rd Secs., U.N. GAOR, Supp. No. 10, at 255, U.N. Doc. A/46/10 (1991). For the 1954 version of the “Draft Code”, see U.N. Doc. A/CN.4/ 85 (1954), 9 U.N. GAOR, Supp. No. 9, U.N. Doc. A/2693 (1954), reprinted in (1950) 2 Y.B. In'l L. Comm'n 11. See also Johnson, D. H. N., “The Draft Code of Offenses Against the Peace and Security of Mankind” (1955) 4 In'l & Comp. L.Q. 445.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

See First Report on the Draft Code of Offenses against the Peace and Security of Mankind, International Law Commission, 35th Secs., 38 U.N. OAOR Supp. No. 10, at 13, U.N. Doc. A/38/10 (1983), and Second Report on the Drafi Code of Offenses against the Peace and Security of Mankind, International Law Commission, 36th Sess., 39 U.N. GAOR Supp. No. 10, U.N. Doc. A/39/10 (1984); Report of the International Law Commission, 40th Secs., U.N. GAOR Supp. No. 10, U.N. Doc. A/43/10 (1988); Report of the International Law Commission, 41st Secs., U.N. GAOR Supp. No. 10, U.N. Doc. A/44/10 (1989). See also, McCaffrey, Stephen C., “The Thirty-Sixth Session of International Law Commission” (1985) 79 Am. J. In'l L. 755, 755–757CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Third Report on the Draft Code of Offenses against the Peace and Security of Mankind, International Law Commission, 37th Sess., (1985). See also McCaffrey, Stephen C., “The Thirty-Seventh Session of the International Law Commission” (1986) 80 Am. J. In'l L. 185, 186–188.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

See also Sharon A. Williams, supra n. 1; Gross, Leo, “Some Observations on the United Nations Draft Code of Offenses Against the Peace and Security of Mankind” (1985) 15 Is. Yrbk. Human Rights 224.Google Scholar

10 See Agreement for the Prosecution and Punishment of Major War Criminals of the European Axis (London Charter), August 1945, 82 U.N.T.S. 279, 59 Stat 1544, E.A.S. No. 472; International Military Tribunal for the Far East, 19 January 1946, T.I.A.S. No. 1589; Control Council Law No. 10 (Punishment of Persons Guilty of War Crimes, Crimes Against Peace and Humanity), 20 December 1945, Official Gazette of the Control Council for Germany, No. 3, 31 (1946); Affirmation of the Principles of International Law Recognized by the Charter of the Nuremberg Tribunal, U.N.G.A. Res. 95(I), U.N. Doc. A/64/Add.1 (1946). Mr. Justice Jackson, Chief Prosecutor at the Trial of the Major War Criminals, Nuremberg, stated in his opening statement: “Crimes against international law are committed by men, not by abstract entities, and only by punishing individuals who commit such crimes can the provisions of international law be enforced”. Trial of the Major War Criminale before the International Military Tribunal, Proceedings, Vol. I, Nuremberg, 1947, p. 34. See also Trial of Japanese War Criminals, Documents (G.P.O., Washington, D.C., 1946), p. 40; The Charter and Judgment of the Nuremberg Tribunal: History and Analysis, Memorandum submitted by the Secretary-General (A/CN.4/5) in part, pp. 39–41; Principles of International Law Recognized in the Charter of the Nuremberg Tribunal and in the Judgment of the Tribunal (International Law Commiesion), adopted at Geneva, 29 July 1950, 5 U.N. GAOR Supp. No. 12, at 11, U.N. Doc. A/1316 (1960).

11 See supra n. 9.

12 Report of the International Law Commission on Questions of International Criminal Jurisdiction, U.N. Doc. A/CN.4/15, (1950). It is noteworthy that in this report, as well as throughout the reports and codification history of the Draft Code of Offenses Against the Peace and Security of Mankind, supra n. 9, as well as throughout the history of the establishment of an international criminal jurisdiction, the work of the International Association of Penal Law has consistently referred to one of its founders, Professor Donnedieu de Vabres, who was a judge at Nuremberg and a member of the ILC, as well as a member of the Committee on the Draft Code. Vespasian V. Pella, a past President of the Association and Romania's representative at the League of Nations, was the principal author of the Convention for the Prevention and Punishment of Terrorism, 16 November 1937, League of Nations Doc. C.546(I).M.383(I).1937.V, League of Nations O.J. No. 19, at 23 (1938). See also Pella, Vespasian V., “Towards an International Criminal Court” (1950) 44 Am. J. In'l L. 37CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Symposium issue (1936) 17 Revue Int'le de Droit Penal, Nos. 3–4; Symposium issue, with articles by Vabres, Henri Donnedieu de and Biddle, Francis, (1948) 19 Revue Int'le de Droit Penal, No. 1Google Scholar; Symposium issue on the various U.N. drafts, (1949) 20 Revue Int'le de Droit Penal, No. 1. Symposium issue, ( 1974) 45 Revue Infle de Droit Penal, Nos. 3–4, containing contributions to the Fifth U.N. Conference on Crime Prevention and the Treatment of Offenders, Geneva, 1–12 September 1975, on the subject of the creation of an international criminal court.

13 Report of the International Law Commission on Question of International Criminal Jurisdiction, U.N. Doc. A/CN.4/15 (1950). See also Report of the International Law Commission, 2d Sess., U.N. GAOR Supp. No. 12, U.N. Doc. A/1316 (1950), and discussions on this report by the Sixth Committee of the General Assembly, 5th Sess., 240th meeting, 16 November 1950; 241st meeting, 17 November 1950; 242nd meeting, 22 November 1950; 243rd meeting, 23 November 1950; 244th meeting, 27 November 1950; reprinted in Ferencz, Benjamin, An International Criminal Court, 2 vols. (1980) 265–305Google Scholar [hereinafter cited as “Ferencz”].

14 Report of the International Law Commission, U.N. A/CN.4/20, (1960). See also Report of the International Law Commission and discussions of the G.A. Sixth Committee, supra n. 13.

15 Ibid. See Report of the Sixth Committee to the General Assembly, U.N. Doc. A/1639, (1950), reprinted in Ferencz, supra n. 13, at 306–11.

16 Ibid.

17 Ibid. See also Ferencz, supra n. 13, at 26–31.

18 Ibid.

19 Ibid.

20 Roling, Bert V.A., “The Nuremberg and Tokyo Trials in Retrospect” in Bassiouni, M. Cherif & Nanda, Ved P., eds., A Treatise on International Criminal Law, 2 vols. (1973)Google Scholar; and Bassiouni, M. Cherif, “Nuremberg Forty Years Later” (1986) 18 Case W. Res. J. Int'l L. 261.Google Scholar

21 See Report of the Sixth Committee, Fifth Session of the General Assembly, 244th meeting, 27 November 1950, reprinted in Ferencz, supra n. 13, at 298–305.

22 U.N. Doc. A/CN.4/44, (1951). See also Report of the International Law Commission, 3rd Secs., U.N. GAOR Supp. No. 9, U.N. Doc. A/1858 (1961).

23 See G.A. Res. 378B (V), 17 November 1950, G A Res. 380(V), 17 November 1950, and discussions on the first Report of the International Law Commission, U.N. Doc. A/C.6/L.206 (1952). For pertinent documents, see Ferencz, Benjamin, Defining International Aggression (1975) vol. 2, p. 89Google Scholaret seq. See also Stone, Julius, Aggression and World Order (1958)Google Scholar, and M. Cherif Bassiouni and Benjamin Ferencz, “The Crime Against Peace” in Bassiouni, ICL, vol. 1, supra n. 1, at 169.

The first fifteen-member Special Committee worked from 1952 to 1954. In connection with the work of the first committee, see the Report by the Secretary-General on the Question of Defining Aggression, U.N. Doc. A/2211, (1952), and Report of the Special Committee on the Question of Defining Aggression, U.N. GAOR Supp. No. 9, U.N. Doc. A/1858 (1953).

24 Draft Statute for an International Criminal Court (Annex, to the Report of the Committee on International Criminal Court Jurisdiction, 31 August 1951), 7 U.N. GAOR Supp. No. 11, at 23, U.N. Doc. A/2136 (1952). See also subsequent Reports of the Committee on International Criminal Jurisdiction, U.N. Doc. A/2186 and U.N. Doc. A/2186/Add.1. The discussions of the Sixth Committee and of the General Assembly until the end of 1952 encompassed all three reports (U.N. Doc. A/2136, U.N. Doc. A/2186, U.N. Doc. A/2186/Add.1). See also Historical Survey of the Question of International Criminal Jurisdiction, Memorandum by the Secretary-General, A/CN.4/7/Rev.1 (1949), reprinted in Ferencz, supra n. 13, at 399. The chronology of relevant U.N. documents, reports and resolutions are: Report of the International Law Commission on the Question of International Criminal Jurisdiction, U.N. Doc. A/CN.4/15 (1950); Report of the International Law Commission to the U.N. General Assembly on the Question of International Criminal Justice, 5 U.N. GAOR Supp. No. 12, at 18, U.N. Doc. A/1316 (1950); Report of the Sixth Committee to the UM General Assembly concerning the Report of the International Law Commission on the Question of International Criminal Jurisdiction (U.N. Doc. A/1316), 5 U.N. GAOR, U.N. Doc. A/1639 (1950); Report on the International Criminal Jurisdiction, 7 U.N. GAOR Supp. No. 11, U.N. Doc. A/2136 (1951) (Final); Report of the 1953 Committee on International Criminal Jurisdiction to the Sixth Committee, 9 U.N. GAOR Supp. No. 12, at 23, U.N. Doc. A/2645 (1953); Report of the Sixth Committee to the U.N General Assembly considering the (Final) Report of the 1963 Committee on International Criminal Jurisdiction (U.N. Doc. A/2645), 9 U.N. GAOR Supp., U.N. Doc. A/2827/Corr. 1 (1954); U.N.G A. Res. 898(X), U.N. Doc. A/RES/66 (1954) (tabling the Report of the 1953 Committee on International Criminal Jurisdiction); U.N.G.A Res. 1187 (XII), 12 U.N. GAOR (1957) (tabling the Report of the Sixth Committee on International Criminal Jurisdiction, U.N. Doc. A/3771 (1957)).

25 Ibid.

26 See supra n. 9.

27 See e.g., Vattel, G., Le Droit dea Gens (1887)Google Scholar; Anzilotti, , “Teoria General Della Responsabilite Della Stato Nel Diritto Internazionale” reprinted in Anzilotti, D., Corso di Diritto Internazionale (1928)Google Scholar; Strupp, K., Handbuch dea Volkerrechte — Das Volkerrechtliche Delikt, vol. 3 (1920)Google Scholar; Viescher, C. de, La Responsabilité des Etats (1924)Google Scholar; Eagleton, Clyde, The Responsibility of State in International Law (1928)Google Scholar; Personnaz, J., La Reparation du Prejudice en Droit International Public (1939).Google Scholar For a more recent view, see Malekian, Farhad, International Criminal Responsibility of States (1985).Google Scholar

28 (1976) Y.B. Int'l L. Comm'n (Pt. 2) at ii, U.N. Doc. A/CN./SER.A/1976. See aleo 1981 International Law Commission: Report on the Work of ita Thirty-Third Session (1981); Report of the International Law Commission, 36th Secs., U.N. GAOR Supp. No. 10, at 39110 (1984); Brownlie, Ian, System of the Law of Nations: State Responsibility Pt. I. (1983) 32–33Google Scholar, wherein he states:

“The question arises whether, alongside the delictual or “civil” responsibility of the state, there exists criminal responsibility. Since 1920 a considerable number of writers and the resolutions of non-governmental bodies have envisaged the criminal responsibility of states alone or the cumulative responsibility of states and individuals. While the imposition of criminal penalties upon collectivities such as corporations presents problems, there can be little doubt that, as in domestic legal systems, such difficulties do not in principle exclude criminal responsibility. The more important and preliminary problems in international relations grow out of unsuit-ability of the present system for the imposition of criminal responsibility on states.

It is very doubtful if governments are prepared to accept the notion.

Since the issue of criminal responsibility bears no necessary relation to that of the normal and generally recognized type of state responsibility, the matter can be left safely on one side. However, the concept of criminal responsibility appears in the draft articles on state responsibility provisionally adopted by the International Law Commission …

In his report the Special Rapporteur, Roberto Ago, draws together a variety of doctrinal strands of considerable diversity, in order to justify the category of ‘international crime’. It is very doubtful if the evidence adduced by the Rapporteur gives more than very equivocal support for the existence of the category as positive law. The present writer remains unconvinced of the practical utility of the concept of the criminal responsibility of states. It is rather a pity that the issue has been introduced into a set of articles which are essentially directed to other problemes. State responsibility as a matter of law is, and in principle should be, limited to the obligations to make reparation, to compensate. Unfortunately the precise legal incidents of an ‘International crime’ in respect of states are a matter of uncertainty”.

ProfessorAgo's, views can be found in (1976) Y.B. Int'l L. Comm'n ii, at 26–64Google Scholar, and earlier in the Third Report of the International Law Commission, Twenty-third Session, 26 April - 30 July 1971. See also Munch, Fritz, “Criminal Responsibility of States” in Bassiouni, , ICL, vol. 1, supra n. 1, at 123.Google Scholar

29 Ibid.

30 See supra n. 9.

31 See supra n. 24 and discussion of that report and commente by Member-States before the Sixth Committee, Seventh Session of the General Assembly 321st meeting, of November 1952; 322nd meeting, 8 November 1952; 323rd meeting, 10 November 1952; 324th meeting, 11 November 1952; 325th meeting, 12 November 1952; 326th meeting, 12 November 1952; 327th meeting, 14 November 1952; 328th meeting, 17 November 1952. See also Report of the Sixth Committee, U.N. Doc. A/2275 (1952), reprinted in Ferencz, supra n. 13, at 365–428.

32 See supra nn. 13 and 24.

33 Revised Draft Statute for an International Court (Annex to the Report of the Committee on International Criminal Jurisdiction, 20 August 1953), 9 GAOR Supp. 12, at 21, U.N. Doc. A/2645 (1954).

34 Ibid.

35 See supra n. 24.

36 See supra n. 9.

37 See supra n. 23 and accompanying text.

38 G.A. Res. 1186 (XII), 11 December 1957. See also infra n. 39.

39 G.A. Res. 898 (IX), 14 December 1954. See also U.N. GAOR, 9th Sess. Supp. No. 12, U.N. Doc. A/2646 (1957), and G.A. Res. 1187 (XII), 11 December 1957, tabling the Draft once again.

40 For a history and documents relating to these committees, see Benjamin Ferencz, supra n. 23.

41 For a comparison of the various committee reports and alternative drafts until 1971, see Bassiouni, M. Cherif, “The Definition of Aggression in International Law: The Crime Against Peace” in A Treatise on International Criminal Law, supra n. 20, vol. 1.Google Scholar For a contemporary comment, see Paust, Jordan, “Aggression against Authority: The Crime of Oppression, Politicide and Other Crimes Against Human Rights” (1986) 18 Cas. W. Res. J. In'l L. 283.Google Scholar

42 U.N. G.A. Res. 3314 (XXIX), 29 U.N. GAOR Supp. No. 31, at 142, U.N. Doc. A/9631 (1974).

43 Charter of the United Nations, 59 Stat. 1021, T.S. No. 993, reprinted in (1945) 39 Am. J. In'l L. 190.

44 U.N. Doc. A/CN.4/377 (1978).

45 Ibid.

46 This omission was not without strong objection from some members including the United States, Israel, and France who all believed that the “Draft Code” and an international jurisdiction were inextricably linked. See Leo Gross, supra n. 9, at 27.

47 See supra n. 9.

48 See supra n. 9.

49 See supra n. 9 and accompanying text.

50 See supra n. 9.

51 See supra n. 9.

52 The list of provisionally adopted articles also includes: 1 (Definition); 2 (Characterization); 4 (Motives); 5 (Responsibility of states); 6 (Obligation to try or extradite); 7 (Non-applicability of statutory limitations); 8 (Judicíal guarantees); 9 (Non bis in idem); 10 (Non-retroactivity); 11 (Order of a government or a superior); 12 (Responsibility of the superior); 13 (Official position and responsibility); 14 (Defenses and extenuating circumstances); 15 (Aggression); 16 (Threat of aggression); 17 (Intervention); and 18 (Colonial domination and other forms of alien domination). Report of the International Law Commission, 43rd Secs., U.N. GAOR Supp. No. 10, at 235–36, U.N. Doc. A/46/10 (1991).

53 Ibid., at 259.

54 Ibid.

55 Ibid., at 200.

56 Ibid., at 201. The text of the article is as follows:

“Any defendant found guilty of any of the crimes defined in this code shall be sentenced to life imprisonment.

If there are extenuating circumstances, the defendant shall be sentenced to imprisonment for a term of 10 to 20 years.

[In addition, the defendant may, as appropriate, be sentenced to total or partial confiscation of stolen or misappropriated property. The Tribunal shall decide whether to entrust euch property to a humanitarian organization.]” Ibid., at n. 296.

57 Ibid., at 201.

58 Ibid., at 214. The provision read as follows:

“The Jurisdiction of the Court

1. The Court shall try individuals accused of the crimes defined in the code of crimes against the peace and security of mankind [accused of crimes defined in the annex to the present statute] in respect of which the State or States in which the crime is alleged to have been committed has or have conferred jurisdiction upon it.

2. Conferment of jurisdiction by the State or States of which the perpetrator is a national, or by the victim State or the State against which the crime was directed, or by the State whose nationale have been the victims of the crime shall be required only if such States also have jurisdiction, under their domestic legislation, over such individuals.

3. The Court shall have cognizance of any challenge to its jurisdiction.

4. Provided that jurisdiction is conferred upon it by the States concerned, the Court shall also have cognizance of any disputes concerning judicial competence that may arise between such States, as well as of applications for review of sentences handed down in respect of the same crime by the courts of different States.

5. The Court may be seized by one or several States with the interpretation of a provision of international criminal law”. Ibid., at n. 300.

59 Ibid., at 214–235.

60 Ibid., at 237. Following the ILC's decision to discuss the establishment of an international jurisdiction, the Special Rapporteur devoted his entire tenth report to the subject in which the discussion centered around: 1. The law to be applied; 2. Jurisdiction of the court ratione materiae; 3. Complaints before the Court; 4. Proceedings relating to compensation; 5. Handing over the subject of criminal proceedings to the Court; and 6. The Court and the double hearing principle. Report of the International Law Commission, 44th Session, p. 12–13. The ILC decided that although such a tribunal could be workable, they would need a renewed and detailed mandate from the General Assembly before they could further work on the project. Ibid., at 33.

61 See supra n. 20.

62 Ibid.

63 Bassiouni, M. Cherif, International Criminal Law: A Draft International Criminal Code (1980).Google Scholar See also Jescheck, Hans-Heinrich, “Development and Future Prospects of Codification” in Bassiouni, , ICL, vol. 1, supra n. 1, at 83Google Scholar; and Wise, Edward, “Perspectives and Approaches to Codification” in Bassiouni, , ICL, vol. 1, supra n. 1, at 101Google Scholar; “Symposium issue on The Draft International Criminal Code”, (1981) 62 Revue Int'le de Droit Penal, Nos. 3–4.

64 International Convention on the Suppression and Punishment of the Crime of Apartheid, 30 November 1973, U.N. G.A. Res. 3068 (XXVIII), 28 U.N. GAOR Supp. No. 30, at 76, U.N. Doc. A/9030 (1973).

65 Ibid.

66 See M. Cherif Bassiouni, supra n. 8.

67 Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, 9 December 1948, 1 U.N. GAOR Res. 96 (11 Dec. 1946) 78 U.N.T.S. 277. See also Lemkin, Raphael, “Genocide as a Crime Under International Law” (1944) 41 Am. J. Int'l L. 145Google Scholar; Drost, P., The Crime of State (1959)Google Scholar; Aroneau, E., Le Crime Contre L'Humanite (1961)Google Scholar; Bassiouni, M. Cherif, “International Law and the Holocaust” (1978) 9 Cal. W J. Int'l L. 201, at 248.Google Scholar See also Friedlander, Robert A., “Should the U.S. Constitution's Treaty-Making Power Be Used as the Basis for Enactment of Domestic Legislation” (1986) 18 Case W. Res. J. Intl. L. 267.Google Scholar

68 U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/AC.22/C.R.P. 19 (1980).

69 Study on ways and means of insuring the implementation of international instruments such as the International Convention on the Suppression and Punishment of the Crime of Apartheid, including the establishment of the international jurisdiction envisaged by the Convention, U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1426 (1980). See also Bassiouni, M. Cherif and Derby, Daniel H., “Final Report on the Establishment of an International Criminal Court for the Implementation of the Apartheid Convention and Other Relevant International Instruments” (1981) 9 Hofstra L.R. 523.Google Scholar

70 Ibid.

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