Hostname: page-component-848d4c4894-x5gtn Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-06-11T01:48:53.539Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

“Under ye Lash of ye Law”: The State and the Law in the Post-Culloden Scottish Highlands

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 May 2021

Matthew P. Dziennik Open the ORCID record for Matthew P. Dziennik [Opens in a new window]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

In the aftermath of the Jacobite rebellion of 1745, the British state enacted a series of restrictive legal measures designed to pacify the Scottish Highlands and crush the military power of the Gael. With the evolution of scholarly work on the British state, these measures are increasingly seen through the prism of state power, with the Scottish Gàidhealtachd cast as the victim of a fiscal-military system determined to impose obedience on its territory and peoples. In analyzing the implementation and enforcement of the laws passed between 1746 and 1752, this article challenges this narrative. By focusing attention on the legal system—particularly with regards enforcement—this article considers the local reception of the laws and the ideological, legal, and bureaucratic limitations to state authority. Yet it also explores how clan chiefs and traditional elites, who were the primary target of the legislation, quickly turned the laws to their own advantage. This analysis challenges the idea of effective state intervention in the Gàidhealtachd after 1746 and instead brings attention to how parliamentary legislation was mobilized by regional actors to local ends in ways that cast a long shadow over the history of the Scottish Highlands.

Type
Original Manuscript
Information
Journal of British Studies , Volume 60 , Issue 3 , July 2021 , pp. 609 - 631
Copyright
Copyright © The North American Conference on British Studies, 2021

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1 Macinnes, Allan I., “The British Military-Fiscal State and the Gael: New Perspectives on the ’45,” in Rannsachadh na Gàidhlig 2000, ed. Ò, Colm Baoill and Nancy R. McGuire (Aberdeen, 2002), 257–69Google Scholar, at 260. See also Shaw, Martin, “Britain and Genocide: Historical and Contemporary Parameters of National Responsibility,” Review of International Studies 37, no. 5 (2011): 2417–38CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at 2424; Pollard, Tony, “The Battle of Culloden: More than a Difference of Opinion,” in Culloden: The History and Archaeology of the Last Clan Battle, ed. Pollard, Tony (Barnsley, 2009), 1–16Google Scholar, at 11–12.

2 For this socioeconomic historiography, see Devine, T. M., The Scottish Nation (London, 1999), 46–47, 171–72Google Scholar; Dodgshon, R. A., From Chiefs to Landlords: Social and Economic Change in the Western Highlands and Island, c.1493–1820 (Edinburgh, 1998)Google Scholar; Macinnes, Allan I., Clanship, Commerce and the House of Stuart, 1603–1788 (East Linton, 1996)Google Scholar; Gray, Malcolm, The Highland Economy, 1750–1850 (Edinburgh, 1957)Google Scholar.

3 Hoppit, Julian, “Compulsion, Compensation, and Property Rights in Britain, 1688–1833,” Past and Present, no. 210 (2011): 93–128CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Marshall, P. J., The Making and Unmaking of Empires: Britain, India, and America, c. 1750–1783 (Oxford, 2005), 34–35Google Scholar; Black, Jeremy, Culloden and the ’45 (Stroud, 1990), 201Google Scholar; Lenman, Bruce, The Jacobite Risings in Britain (London, 1980), 277Google Scholar (“epoch-making”).

4 Abrams, Lynn, “The Taming of Highland Masculinity: Inter-personal Violence and Shifting Codes of Manhood, c. 1760–1840,” Scottish Historical Review 92, no. 233 (2013): 100–22CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Sharpe, James A., “Crime and Punishment,” in Companion to Eighteenth-Century Britain, ed. T., H. Dickinson (Oxford, 2002), 358–66Google Scholar, at 359; John Cairns, “Historical Introduction,” in A History of Private Law in Scotland, ed. Kenneth Reid and Reinhard Zimmermann, 2 vols. (Oxford, 2000), 1:14–184, at 148–49.

5 For the cultural suppression of Gaelic Scotland, see Rabin, Dana, Britain and Its Internal Others, 1750–1800: Under Rule of Law (Manchester, 2017)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Hechter, Michael, Internal Colonialism: The Celtic Fringe in British National Development (1975; repr., New York, 2017)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; McNeil, Kenneth, Scotland, Britain, Empire: Writing the Highlands, 1760–1860 (Columbus, 2007)Google Scholar; Womack, Peter, Improvement and Romance: Constructing the Myth of the Highlands (Basingstoke, 1989)CrossRefGoogle Scholar. For Gaelic Scotland's influence on subsequent colonial policy, see Calloway, Colin, White People, Indians, and Highlanders: Tribal People and Colonial Encounters in Scotland and America (Oxford, 2008)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Szasz, Margaret, Scottish Highlanders and Native Americans: Indigenous Education in the Eighteenth-Century Atlantic World (Norman, 2007)Google Scholar; Plank, Geoffrey, Rebellion and Savagery: The Jacobite Rebellion of 1745 and the British Empire (Philadelphia, 2005)Google Scholar.

6 King, Peter and Ward, Richard M., “Rethinking the Bloody Code in Eighteenth-Century Britain: Capital Punishment at the Centre and on the Periphery,” Past and Present, no. 228 (2015): 159–205CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

7 John Beattie, “London Crime and the Making of the ‘Bloody Code,’ 1689–1718,” in Stilling the Grumbling Hive: The Response to Social and Economic Problems in England, 1689–1750, ed. Tim Keirn (London, 1992), 49–76; Broad, John, “Whigs and Deer-Stealers in Other Guises: A Return to the Origins of the Black Act,” Past and Present, no. 119 (1988): 56–72CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Cruickshanks, Eveline and Erskine-Hill, Howard, “The Waltham Black Act and Jacobitism,” Journal of British Studies 24, no. 3 (1985): 358–65CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

8 John Brewer, The Sinews of Power: War, Money, and the English State, 1688–1783 (London, 1989); John Brewer and Eckhart Hellmuth, eds., Rethinking Leviathan: The Eighteenth-Century State in Britain and Germany (Oxford, 1999). For Brewer's impact, see Lawrence Stone, ed., An Imperial State at War: Britain from 1689–1815 (New York, 1994).

9 For the political instability of Hanoverian Britain, see Robert Harris, Politics and the Nation: Britain in the Mid-Eighteenth Century (Oxford, 2002); Paul Langford, A Polite and Commercial People (Oxford, 1989); Nicholas Rogers, Whigs and Cities: Popular Politics in the Age of Walpole and Pitt (Oxford, 1989).

10 Hoppit, “Compulsion, Compensation, and Property Rights,” 93–128; Horwitz, Henry, “Changes in the Law and Reform of the Legal Order: England (and Wales), 1689–1760,” Parliamentary History 21, no. 3 (2002): 301–24Google Scholar; J. A. W. Gunn, Beyond Liberty and Property: The Process of Self-Recognition in Eighteenth-Century Political Thought (Montreal, 1983).

11 Connors, Richard, “‘The Grand Inquest of the Nation’: Parliamentary Committees and Social Policy in Mid-Eighteenth Century England,” Parliamentary History 14, no. 3 (1995): 285–314Google Scholar.

12 John Home, The History of the Rebellion in the Year 1745 (London, 1802), 3.

13 Military Reports on the Highlands, 1754, MS 10691, fols. 1–6, National Library of Scotland, Edinburgh. (This repository is hereafter cited as NLS). Murray Pittock argues that the deployment of soldiers in Scotland constituted a national, not a regional, military occupation; see Murray Pittock, Culloden (Oxford, 2016), 108–9.

14 For punitive actions in the Highlands, see Charles Sanford Terry, ed., The Albemarle Papers: Being the Correspondence of William Anne, Second Earl of Albemarle, 2 vols. (Aberdeen, 1902), 1:53–54, 313–14.

15 Chesterfield to Newcastle, 20 March 1746, British Library, Add. MSS 32706, fol. 324 (this repository is hereafter cited as BL); John L. Roberts, The Jacobite Wars: Scotland and the Military Campaigns of 1715 and 1745 (Edinburgh, 2002), 193; Scots Magazine, October 1746, 475.

16 Macinnes, “The British Military-Fiscal State and the Gael,” 263–65.

17 W. A. Speck, The Butcher (Oxford, 1981), 159–68, at 141; Horace Walpole, The Letters of Horace Walpole, 4 vols. (Philadelphia, 1842), 4:493; Statements of the treatment of wounded after Culloden, 1749, BL, Add. MSS 4326A.

18 Newcastle to Churchill, 18 April 1747, NLS MS 307, fol. 7.

19 Hannah Weiss Muller, Subjects and Sovereign: Bonds of Belonging in the Eighteenth-Century British Empire (Oxford, 2017), 45–46; David Lemmings, ed., The British and Their Laws in the Eighteenth Century (Woodbridge, 2005); H. T. Dickinson, Liberty and Property: Political Ideology in Eighteenth Century Britain (London, 1977).

20 E. P. Thompson, Whigs and Hunters: The Origin of the Black Act (New York, 1975), esp. 258–69.

21 Byron Frank Jewell, “The Legislation Relating to Scotland after the Forty-Five” (PhD diss., University of North Carolina, 1975), 63.

22 For these concerns, see Memorial touching the bill now depending for disarming the Highlands, n.d., BL, Add MS 33049, fols. 253–64.

23 Mackillop, Andrew, “Confrontation, Negotiation, and Accommodation: Garrisoning the Burghs in Post-Union Scotland,” Journal of Early Modern History 15, nos. 1/2 (2011): 159–83CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Tony Hayter, The Army and the Crowd in Mid-Georgian England (London, 1978).

24 Military Reports from the Highlands, n.d., NLS MS 10691, fols. 10–11.

25 When new lists of justices of the peace were produced in 1747, several military officers were appointed to positions in Highland counties as had been the case after the 1715 rebellion; see Lists of Justices, 1747, NLS MS 17536.

26 Philip C. Yorke, ed., The Life and Correspondence of Philip Yorke, Earl of Hardwicke, 3 vols. (Cambridge, 1913), 1:588.

27 John Lorne Campbell, ed., Highland Songs of the Forty-Five (Edinburgh, 1984), 106; Ian Grimble, The World of Rob Donn (Edinburgh, 1999), 94.

28 William Matheson, ed., The Songs of John MacCodrum (Edinburgh, 1938), 10.

29 Campbell, Highland Songs of the Forty-Five, 237 (mocking); Grimble, World of Rob Donn, 90 (Parliament).

30 Campbell, Highland Songs of the Forty-Five, 222.

31 Yorke, Life and Correspondence, 1:593. Hardwicke's son had married the daughter of Lord Glenorchy, heir to the Campbells of Breadalbane, and Hardwicke had a history of consulting with Scots on legal affairs north of the border. See various letters between Hardwicke and Scottish grandees including Forbes, Argyll, Stair, and Breadalbane, 1738–45, BL, Add. MSS 35446, fols. 1–70.

32 Military Reports from the Highlands, n.d., NLS MS 10691, fol. 3; Proposals for the Better Settling [. . .] of the Highlands by Dundas of Arniston, n.d., BL, Add. MSS 35890, fol. 80; John Percival, Manuscripts of the Earl of Egmont: Diary of the First Earl of Egmont, 3 vols. (London, 1923), 3:46; An Appeal to the Common Sense of Scotsmen, Especially those of the Landed Interest (Edinburgh, 1747).

33 Quoted in Jeremy Black, The Hanoverians: The History of a Dynasty (London, 2004), 24.

34 Yorke, Life and Correspondence, 1:594; further hints about sheriffs, n.d., BL, Add. MSS 35890, fol. 127.

35 For the Enlightenment's faith in the power of the law, see David Hume, A Treatise of Human Nature, ed. L. A. Selby-Bigge (1739; repr., Oxford, 1896), 537–38; Lord Kames, Essays on Several Subjects Concerning British Antiquities (Edinburgh, 1747).

36 Bricke, Margaret S., “The Pelhams vs. Argyll: A Struggle for Mastery of Scotland, 1747–48,” Scottish Historical Review 61, no. 172 (1982): 157–65Google Scholar; R. H. Scott, “The Politics and Administration of Scotland, 1725–48” (PhD diss., University of Edinburgh, 1981), 451–555.

37 Newcastle to Cumberland, 6 March 1746, BL, Add. MS 32706, fols. 259–62.

38 John Stuart Shaw, The Management of Scottish Society, 1707–1764 (Edinburgh, 1983); Ann Whetstone, Scottish County Government in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries (Edinburgh, 1981).

39 Thoughts on the Highlands, n.d., NLS MS 17528, fol. 78 (“cruel and stupefying”); Remarks on the People and Government of Scotland. Particularly the Highlanders; their original Customs, Manners (Edinburgh, 1747), 5–7; Causes of the Present Disorderly State of the Highlands of Scotland, n.d., GD248/654, fol. 1, National Records of Scotland (hereafter NRS).

40 Reed Browning, Political and Constitutional Ideas of the Court Whigs (Baton Rouge, 1982), 172.

41 Arniston's Proposals for the Better Settling [. . .] of the Highlands, n.d., BL, Add. MSS 35890, fol. 80.

42 For example, see Scots Magazine, February 1747, 640–47.

43 Sketches of the Regulations proposed to be made in Scotland, n.d., BL, Add. MS 35890, fol. 46.

44 Yorke, Life and Correspondence, 1:609.

45 Hoppit, “Compulsion, Compensation, and Property Rights,” 111–13.

46 Arniston's Proposals for the Better Settling [. . .] of the Highlands, n.d., BL, Add. MSS 35890, fol. 80.

47 Patrick Turnbull, A Cursory View of the Ancient and Present State of the Fieffs (London, 1747); Colin Kidd, Subverting Scotland's Past: Scottish Whig Historians and the Creation of an Anglo-British Identity, 1689–c.1830 (Cambridge, 1993), 150–61.

48 David M. Walker, A Legal History of Scotland, vol. 5, The Eighteenth Century (Edinburgh, 1998), 479–89.

49 Sketch of the Regulations proposed to be made in Scotland, n.d., BL, Add. MSS 35890, fol. 46.

50 Scroll of Answer [by Court of Session] to the House of Lords, 8 January 1747, NLS MS 17537, fol. 64.

51 Hoppit, “Compulsion, Compensation, and Property Rights,” 114.

52 The problematic negotiations over the bill are best captured in Jewell, “Legislation Relating to Scotland after the Forty-Five,” chaps. 5–6.

53 Annotation to legislation, n.d., BL, Add. MS 33049, fol. 267.

54 John Finlay, Legal Practice in Eighteenth-Century Scotland (Leiden, 2015), 110, 153–85.

55 Lindsay Farmer, Criminal Law, Tradition and Legal Order: Crime and the Genius of Scots Law, 1747 to the Present (Cambridge, 1997), 21; Walker, Legal History of Scotland, 5:323–46.

56 Andrew Mackillop, “A Union for Empire? Scotland, the English East India Company and the British Union,” in “Union of 1707,” supplement, Scottish Historical Review 87, no. 2 (2008): 116–34; Allan I. Macinnes, Union and Empire: The Making of the United Kingdom (Cambridge, 2007), 313–26.

57 Union with England Act, 1707, 5 Ann., c. 7, Section XIX.

58 Unknown to unknown, 17 January 1747, BL, Add. MS 35890, fol. 70.

59 List of Faculty of Advocates, n.d., BL, Add. MSS 35890, fol. 58.

60 Instructions to Findlater, April 1746, BL, Add. MSS 33049, fols. 210–15.

61 Titles of papers with answers on Abuses and neglect in the general management of Scotland, 1752, BL, Add. MSS 35890, fols. 276–306.

62 Ogilvie vs. Charles Hamilton, 4 February 1747, NRS CS175/521; Cases tried before the Court of Session, n.d., BL, Add. MSS 35890, fol. 30.

63 Pittock, Culloden, 115.

64 Memorial touching the bill now depending for Disarming the Highlands, n.d., BL, Add. MS 33049, fols. 253–64; Cumberland to Newcastle, 28 February 1746, BL, Add. MS 32706, fols. 233–34; Terry, Albemarle Papers, 1:6 (“Rebellious rascals”).

65 Circular to officers, 15 December 1747, NLS MS 304; Bland to unknown, 27 December 1747, NLS MS 304; Bland to Col. Watson, 12 January 1748, NLS MS 304 (“Gally Slave”).

66 Blakeney to Churchill, 4 April 1747, NLS MS 307.

67 Bland to Major Wilson, 5 December 1747, NLS MS 304.

68 Terry, Albemarle Papers, 536–42, at 540.

69 Military Reports from the Highlands, n.d., NLS MS 10691, fols. 15–19.

70 Quoted in Lenman, Jacobite Risings in Britain, 269.

71 Draft Bill for Renewing the Highland Bill of 1725, n.d., BL, Add. MSS 33049, fols. 270–72.

72 These counties were Dumbarton, Stirling, Perth, Kincardine, Aberdeen, Nairn, Cromarty, Forfar, Banff, Caithness, Elgin, Inverness, Argyll, Sutherland, and Ross. Only the latter four had large Gaelic-speaking populations and can be considered Highland districts proper.

73 List for Caithness, n.d., NLS MS 17536, fol. 23.

74 Recommendations of sheriff-deputes, March 1747, BL, Add. MSS 35890, fol. 174.

75 Notes Concerning Regulations in the Highlands, n.d., BL, Add. MSS 35890, fol. 50.

76 Finlay, Legal Practice in Eighteenth-Century Scotland, 122.

77 Notes on JPs, n.d., NLS MS 17353, fol. 1; Military Reports on the Highlands, n.d., NLS MS 10691, fols. 15–19 (“great Tyranny”).

78 Petition of John Grant and witness statements, 18 January 1753, NRS GD137/3350.

79 Alexander Macleod to Scrymgeour, 22 November 1755, NRS GD137/3371.

80 Scrymgeour proposed one substitute each for Fort William, Fort Augustus, Inverness, Badenoch and Strathspey, Skye, and the Outer Hebrides. See Scrymgeour to My Lord, 28 March 1749, NRS GD137/3333.

81 Scrymgeour to My Lord, 28 March 1749, NRS GD137/3333.

82 Memorials about the Episcopalian Minister, March 1747, NLS MS 17528, fol. 17.

83 Account of Colin Campbell, sheriff-substitute for Fort William, 1763–67, NRS GD137/1120.

84 Account of expenses disbursed in paying witnesses who attended circuit courts at Inverness, 11 April 1754, NRS GD137/3365.

85 Alexander Macleod to Scrymgeour, 6 May 1755, NRS GD137/3370.

86 Further hints about sheriffs, n.d., BL, Add. MSS 35890, fol. 127.

87 Brewer, Sinews of Power, 54.

88 Notes on JPs, n.d., NLS MS 17535, fol. 1.

89 Hopetoun to Findlater, 30 April 1748, NRS GD248/565/83, fol. 47; Hints of Amendment to the Scots Jurisdiction Bill, 1747, BL, Add. MSS 35890, fol. 110; Scroll of Answer [by Court of Session] to the House of Lords, 8 January 1747, NLS MS 17537, fol. 64.

90 Pelham's Report on figures employed by Treasury, 1752, BL, Add. MS 33050, fol. 184.

91 Pelham's Report on figures employed by Treasury, 1752, BL, Add. MS 33050, fol. 161.

92 Titles of papers with answers on Abuses and neglect the general management of Scotland since the rebellion, 1752, BL, Add. MS 35890, fols. 276–306; Blakeney to Churchill, 23 May 1747, NLS MS 307, fol. 20 (“unmolested”).

93 James Erskine to Duncan Campbell, 22 November 1748, NRS GD170/1213, fol. 5.

94 Pelham's Report on figures employed by Treasury, 1752, BL, Add. MS 33050, fols. 161, 183–85.

95 John Roydon Hughes to Duncan Campbell, 1 September 1749, NRS GD170/1249, fol. 1; Duncan Campbell to James Erskine, September 1749, NRS GD170/423, fols. 2–5.

96 Alexander Macleod to Scrymgeour, 6 May 1755, NRS GD137/3370.

97 John Grant of Belimore to Ludovic Grant, 6 February 1748, NRS GD248/173/2, fol. 32.

98 Bland to Capt. Troughear, 3 July 1755, NLS MS 305; Bland to Mr. Douglas, 11 January 1748, NLS, MS 304; Notes on Calamities in Atholl, 1752, NLS MS 17504, fol. 43.

99 Quoted in T. M. Devine, Clanship to Crofters’ War: The Social Transformation of the Highlands (Manchester, 1994), 30.

100 Sir Walter Scott, Waverley (Oxford, 2015), 375.

101 Kidd, Subverting Scotland's Past, 150–60.

102 Lenman, Jacobite Risings in Britain, 280–81. See note 2, above.

103 Minute books and extracted and unextracted processes survive for the Inverness Sheriff-Court for some of the post-Culloden period, as do records of the High Court of the Justiciary on circuit, but most Highlands and Islands districts, especially the Inner and Outer Hebrides, are underserved in the surviving records.

104 Rab Houston, “Custom in Context: Medieval and Early Modern Scotland and England,” Past and Present, no. 211 (2011): 35–76, at 36–37, 56–59.

105 Some notes relating to the Jurisdiction Bill, n.d., BL, Add. MSS 35890, fol. 120.

106 Sketch of the regulations proposed to be made in Scotland, n.d., BL, Add. MSS 35890, fols. 46, 120; Andrew Lang, ed., The Highlands of Scotland in 1750 (Edinburgh, 1898), 7, 123.

107 A Short Account of the Rise, Progress, and Present State of the Society [. . .] a Sermon; Preached in Edinburgh (Edinburgh, 1748), 54.

108 Military Reports from the Highlands, n.d., NLS MS 10691, fol. 13.

109 Report, 1746, The National Archives, SP54/34, fol. 4.

110 David Taylor, The Wild Black Region: Badenoch, 1750–1800 (Edinburgh, 2016), 126–27, 130.

111 Findlater to Hardwicke, 25 September 1748, BL, Add. MSS 35446, fol. 300.

112 William Grant to Hardwicke, 24 November 1748, BL, Add., MS 35446, fol. 335.

113 Bland to Potter, 5 November 1748, BL, Add. MSS 35446, fol. 318.

114 Virginia Wills, ed., Reports of the Annexed Estates, 1755–69 (Edinburgh, 1973), v.

115 Scottish Record Office, Statistics of the Annexed Estates, 1755–1756 (Edinburgh, 1973), 1.

116 Wills, Reports of the Annexed Estates, vi.

117 Mackillop, Andrew, More Fruitful Than the Soil: Army, Empire and the Scottish Highlands, 1715–1815 (East Linton, 2000), 88–94Google Scholar.

118 For proposed land nationalizations, see A Second Letter to a Noble Lord Containing a Plan for [. . .] Attaching the Highlanders to the British Constitution (London, 1748).

119 Farmer, Criminal Law, Tradition and Legal Order, 63–69.

120 Forbes to Hardwicke, 5 March 1747, BL, Add. MSS 35446, fol. 155; An Act for taking away and abolishing the Hereditable Jurisdictions, n.d., NLS MS 17537, fol. 35; Sketch of the regulations proposed to be made in Scotland, n.d., BL, Add. MSS 35890, fol. 46.

121 Sir Crispin Agnew of Lochnaw, The Baron's Court (Edinburgh, 1994)Google Scholar; Smout, T. C., “Peasant and Lord in Scotland: Institutions Controlling Scottish Rural Society, 1500–1800,” Recueils de la Société Jean Bodin, no. 44 (1987): 502–24, at 509–13Google Scholar.

122 Hints of Amendment to the Scots Jurisdiction Bill, 1747, BL, Add. MSS 35890, fol. 110.

123 Scroll of Answer [by Court of Session] to the House of Lords, 8 January 1747, NLS MS 17536, fol. 64.

124 List of plaids, tartan, sarge, hose, swords and guns given in by tenants, n.d., NRS GD44/51/167/4.

125 Military Reports from the Highlands, n.d., NLS MS 10691, fol. 4.

126 James Stewart to Lt. Campbell, 31 August 1754, NLS MS 305.

127 Archibald Campbell to Duncan Campbell, 17 February 1762, NRS GD170/1076, fol. 2.

128 An Essay upon Theft and Depredation in the Highlands of Scotland, 1752, BL, Add. MSS 38590, fol. 267.

129 Taylor, Wild Black Region, 13.

130 Sinclair, Sir John, ed., The Statistical Accounts of Scotland, 1791–99, 21 vols. (Edinburgh, 1796), 17:383–84Google Scholar. See also Campbell, Alexander, A Journey from Edinburgh through Parts of North Britain (London, 1802), 175Google Scholar.

131 Notes on calamities in Atholl, 1752, NLS MS 17504, fol. 43. See also Macinnes, Clanship, Commerce, and the House of Stuart, 214.

132 Harris, Politics and the Nation, 186.

133 Hindle, Steve, The State and Social Change in Early Modern England (Basingstoke, 2000), 89Google Scholar.

134 Devine, T. M., The Scottish Clearances: A History of the Dispossessed (London, 2019)Google Scholar; Hunter, James, The Making of the Crofting Community (Edinburgh, 2018)Google Scholar; MacAskill, John, ed., The Highland Destitution of 1837: Government Aid and Public Subscription (Aberdeen, 2013)Google Scholar.

135 Cameron, Ewen A., Land for the People? The British Government and the Scottish Highlands, c. 1880–1925 (Edinburgh, 1996)Google Scholar.