Hostname: page-component-848d4c4894-5nwft Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-05-31T12:19:06.468Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The Next World and the New World: Relief, Migration, and the Great Irish Famine

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  06 May 2019

Cormac Ó Gráda
Cormac Ó Gráda*
Affiliation:
Cormac Ó Gráda is Professor Emeritus, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland. E-mail: cormac.ograda@ucd.ie.
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Ireland on the eve of the Great Famine was a poor and backward economy. The Great Irish Famine of the 1840s is accordingly often considered the classic example of Malthusian population economics in action. However, unlike most historical famines, the Great Famine was not the product of a harvest shortfall, but of a major ecological disaster. Because there could be no return to the status quo ante, textbook famine relief in the form of public works or food aid was not enough. Fortunately, in an era of open borders mass emigration helped contain excess mortality, subject to the limitation that the very poorest could not afford to leave. In general, the authorities did not countenance publicly assisted migration. This article discusses the lessons to be learned from two exceptional schemes for assisting destitute emigrants during and in the wake of the famine.

Type
Article
Information
The Journal of Economic History , Volume 79 , Issue 2 , June 2019 , pp. 319 - 355
Copyright
Copyright © The Economic History Association 2019 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

This article is a revised version of my Presidential Address, Economic History Association Conference, Montreal, 9 September 2018. My thanks to all past and present collaborators cited in this paper. Thanks also to Michael Anderson, Bruce Campbell, Ann Carlos, Kevin Denny, Tom Devine, David Dickson, Alan Fernihough, Morgan Kelly, Liam Kennedy, Trevor McClaughlin, Perry McIntyre, Don MacRaild, Breandán Mac Suibhne, Gerry Moran, Peter Solar, and the editors for helpful comments and other assistance.

References

REFERENCES

Alfani, Guido, and Cormac, Ó Gráda. Famine in European History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2017.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alfani, Guido, and Cormac, Ó Gráda. “The Timing and Causes of Famine: The European Experience.” Nature Sustainability 1, no. 6 (2018): 283–88.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Anbinder, Tyler. Nativism and Slavery: The Northern Know Nothings and the Politics of the 1850s. New York: Oxford University Press, 1992.Google Scholar
Anbinder, Tyler. “From Famine to Five Points: Lord Lansdowne’s Irish Tenants Encounter North America’s Most Notorious Slum.” American Historical Review 107, no. 2 (2002): 351–87.Google ScholarPubMed
Anbinder, Tyler, Cormac, Ó Gráda, and Simone, Wegge. “Networks of Opportunity: How Emigrants from the Great Irish Famine Survived, and Eventually Thrived, in New York and Beyond.” Unpublished manuscript, 2019. Available at http://beyondragstoriches.org/networks-of-opportunity.Google Scholar
Asher, Sam, Karan, Nagpal, and Paul, Novosad. “The Cost of Distance: Geography and Governance in Rural India.” Working paper, 19 April 2018. Available at http://caligari.dartmouth.edu/~knagpal/KaranNagpal_JMP.pdf.Google Scholar
Black, R. D. C. Classical Economic Thought and the Irish Question. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1960.Google Scholar
Bolt, Jutta, Robert, Inklaar, Herman, de Jong, et al. “Rebasing ‘Maddison’: New Income Comparisons and the Shape of Long-Run Economic Development.” Maddison Project Working Paper No. 10, Groningen, the Netherlands, January 2018.Google Scholar
BPP (British Parliamentary Papers). “Selection Committee on Emigration, 3rd Report and Minutes of Evidence.” Sessional Papers. 1827. Vol. XXX.550.Google Scholar
BPP (British Parliamentary Papers). “Sixth Report of the Poor Law Commissioners.” Sessional Papers. 1840. Vol. XVII.397.Google Scholar
BPP (British Parliamentary Papers). “Report of the Commissioners Appointed to Take the Census of Ireland for the Year 1841.” Sessional Papers. 1843a. Vol. XXIV.504.Google Scholar
BPP (British Parliamentary Papers). “Enumeration Abstract, 1841 Census.” Sessional Papers. 1843b. Vol. LI.459.Google Scholar
BPP (British Parliamentary Papers). “Report and Minutes of Evidence of the House of Lords Select Committee on Colonization.” Sessional Papers. 1847a. Vol. VI.737.Google Scholar
BPP (British Parliamentary Papers). “Correspondence Relating to the State of Union Workhouse in Ireland.” 2nd ser. Sessional Papers. 1847b. Vol. LV.863.Google Scholar
BPP (British Parliamentary Papers). “Correspondence from January to March 1847 Relating the Measures Adopted for the Relief of Distress in Ireland.” 1847c. Sessional Papers. Vol. LII.1.Google Scholar
BPP (British Parliamentary Papers). “Distress (Ireland). Third Report of the Relief Commissioners, Constituted under the Act 10th Vic., Cap. 7.” Sessional Papers. 1847d. Vol. XVII.103.Google Scholar
BPP (British Parliamentary Papers). “Distress (Ireland.) Fifth, Sixth, and Seventh Reports of the Relief Commissioners, Constituted under the Act 10th Vic., Cap. 7; and Correspondence Connected Therewith.” Sessional Papers. 1847–48. Vol. XIX.27.Google Scholar
BPP (British Parliamentary Papers). “Return of the Court of Chancery in Ireland of the Number of Causes, Description of Property, Rental of Estates, Arrears of Rent….” Sessional Papers. 1847–48. Vol. LVII.226.Google Scholar
BPP (British Parliamentary Papers). “The Census of Ireland for the Year 1851, Part V. Tables of Death, Vol. 2.” 1856. Vol. XXX.2087-II.Google Scholar
BPP (British Parliamentary Papers). “Financial Statement of the Government of India for 1881–82.” Sessional Papers. 1881. Vol. LXVIII. 295.Google Scholar
Bramall, Chris. “Agency and Famine in China’s Sichuan Province, 1958–1962.” China Quarterly 208 (2011): 990–1008.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Broadberry, Stephen, Bruce, Campbell, Alexander, Klein, et al. British Economic Growth 1270–1870. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015.Google Scholar
Cohn, Raymond L. Mass Migration under Sail: European Immigration to the Antebellum United States. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009.Google Scholar
Commission on Emigration and Other Population Problems. Reports. Dublin: Government Publications, 1956.Google Scholar
Davies, Robert W., and Stephen, G. Wheatcroft. The Years of Hunger: Soviet Agriculture, 1931–1933. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004.Google Scholar
Devereux, Stephen. “Social Protection for Enhanced Food Security in Sub-Saharan Africa.” Food Policy 60 (2016): 52–62.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Devine, T. M. “The Emergence of the New Elite in the Western Highlands and Islands, 1800–60.” In Improvement and Enlightenment, edited by Devine, T. M., 108–42. Edinburgh: John Donald, 1989.Google Scholar
Devine, T. M. Clanship to Crofters’ War: The Social Transformation of the Scottish Highlands. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1994.Google Scholar
Devine, T. M. “Why the Highlands Did Not Starve: Ireland and Highland Scotland in the Potato Famine.” In Conflict, Identity and Economic Development: Ireland and Scotland, 1600–1939, edited by Sean, Connolly, Robert, Houston, and Robert, J. Morris, 111–22. Edinburgh: Carnegie Publications, 1995.Google Scholar
Dickson, David. Arctic Ireland. Belfast: White Row Press, 1997.Google Scholar
Dickson, David, Stuart, Daultrey, and Cormac, Ó Gráda. “Hearth Tax, Household Size and Irish Population Change 1672–1821.” Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy 82, no. 6 (1982): 125–81.Google Scholar
Donnelly, James S. The Land and the People of Nineteenth-Century Cork. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1975.Google Scholar
Dorian, Hugh. The Outer Edge of Ulster: A Memoir of Social Life in Nineteenth-Century Donegal, edited by Breandán, Mac Suibhne and David, Dickson. Dublin: Lilliput Press, 2000.Google Scholar
Drèze, Jean, and Amartya, Sen. Hunger and Public Action. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989.Google Scholar
Dunstan, Helen. Conflicting Counsels to Confuse the Age: A Documentary Study of Political Economy in Qing China, 1644–1840. Ann Arbor: Center for Chinese Studies, University of Michigan, 1996.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eiríksson, Andrés. “‘Paupers and Beggars Brats’: Governance and Mortality in the Parsonstown Workhouse During the Great Famine.” Forthcoming, 2018.Google Scholar
Eiríksson, Andrés, and Cormac, Ó Gráda. “Bankrupt Landlords and the Irish Famine.” In Ireland’s Great Famine: Interdisciplinary Perspectives, edited by Cormac, Ó Gráda, 48–62. Dublin: University College Dublin Press, 2006.Google Scholar
Fernihough, Alan, and Cormac Ó Gráda. “Population and Poverty in Ireland on the Eve of the Great Famine.” Queens University Belfast Centre for Economic History, Working Paper No. 18-13, Belfast, Northern Ireland, UK, December 2018.Google Scholar
Fitzpatrick, David. Irish Emigration 1801–1921. Dundalk: Dundalgan Press, 1984.Google Scholar
Flinn, Michael, et al. Scottish Population History. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1977.Google Scholar
Fogel, Robert W. Without Consent or Contract: The Rise and Fall of American Slavery. New York: Norton, 1989.Google Scholar
Gaskell, Philip. Morvern Transformed: A Highland Parish in the Nineteenth Century. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1968.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ghosh, G. H. “Malthus on Emigration and Colonization: Letters to Wilmot-Horton.” Economica 30, no. 117 (1963): 45–62.Google Scholar
Gray, Peter. “Shovelling out Your Paupers: The British State and Irish Famine Emigration, 1846–1850.” Patterns of Prejudice 33, no. 4 (1999): 47–65.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Guinnane, Timothy W., and Cormac Ó Gráda. “Workhouse Mortality and the Great Irish Famine.” In Famine Demography, edited by Tim, Dyson and Cormac, Ó Gráda, 44–64. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002a.Google Scholar
Guinnane, Timothy W., and Cormac Ó Gráda. “Mortality in the North Dublin Union During the Famine.” Economic History Review 55, no. 3 (2002b): 487–506.Google Scholar
Hancock, W. Neilson. “Some Statistics Respecting the Sales of Incumbered Estates in Ireland.” Transactions of the Dublin Statistical Society II (1849–51): 1–11.Google Scholar
Hancock, W. Neilson. “Is There Really a Want of Capital in Ireland?” Transactions of the Dublin Statistical Society II, no. 4 (1850–51): 1–14.Google Scholar
Hatton, Timothy J., and Jeffrey, G. Williamson. The Age of Mass Migration: Causes and Economic Impact. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998.Google Scholar
He, Wenkai. “Global Crises and Domestic Responses: The Qing Famine Relief 1876–1895.” Paper presented at the 16th World Economic History Congress, Stellenbosch, July 2012. Available at http://repository.ust.hk/ir/bitstream/1783.1-7957/1/50HEWENKAI1810.pdf (accessed 20 August 2018).Google Scholar
Hirota, Hidetaka. Expelling the Poor: Atlantic Seaboard States and the Nineteenth-Century Origins of American Immigration Policy. New York: Oxford University Press, 2017.Google Scholar
Hume, David. An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals. London: Millar, 1751.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kelly, Mart, Aidan, Slingsby, Jason, Dykes, et al. “Historical Internal Migration in Ireland.” Paper presented at the GIScience Research (GISRUK) UK conference, Liverpool, England, 2013.Google Scholar
Kelly, Morgan, and Cormac, Ó Gráda. ”Living Standards and Mortality Since the Middle Ages.” Economic History Review 67, no. 2 (2014): 358–81.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kerr, Donal. Priests, People, and Politics in Famine Ireland, 1846–1852. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994.Google Scholar
Killick, John. “Transatlantic Steerage Fares, British and Irish Migration, and Return Migration, 1815–60.” Economic History Review 67, no. 1 (2014): 170–91.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kyd, James Gray. Scottish Population Statistics including Webster Analysis of Population 1755. Edinburgh: T. & A. Constable, 1952.Google Scholar
Lampe, Markus, and Paul, Sharp. A Land of Milk and Butter: How Elites Created the Modern Danish Dairy Industry. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 2018.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lary, Diana. “The ‘Static’ Decades: Inter-Provincial Migration in Pre-Reform China.” In Internal and International Migration: Chinese Perspectives, edited by Frank, N. Pieke and Hein, Mallee, 29–48. London: Routledge, 1999.Google Scholar
Lee, Ronald D. “Population in Pre-Industrial England: An Econometric Analysis.” Quarterly Journal of Economics 87, no. 4 (1973): 581–607.Google Scholar
Li, Lillian M. Fighting Famine in North China: State, Market, and Environmental Decline, 1690s–1990s. Stanford: Stanford. University Press, 2007.Google Scholar
Lucas, Robert E.B., and Oded Stark. “Motivations to Remit: Evidence from Botswana.” Journal of Political Economy 93, no. 5 (1985): 901–18.Google Scholar
Lyne, Gerard. The Lansdowne Estate in Kerry under W. S. Trench 1849–72. Dublin: Geography Publications, 2001.Google Scholar
McGregor, Patrick. “Demographic Pressure and the Irish Famine: Malthus after Mokyr.” Land Economics 65(3) (1989): 228–38.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McIntyre, Perry. “Remembering and Commemorating the Great Famine and Emigration to Australia. Breac: A Digital Journal of Irish Studies, 28 January 2018. Available at https://breac.nd.edu/articles/remembering-and-commemorating-thegreat-famine-and-emigration-to-australia/.Google Scholar
McCabe, Desmond, and Cormac, Ó Gráda. “Better off Thrown behind a Ditch›: Enniskillen workhouse during the Irish Famine.” In Festschrift for James S. Donnelly, edited by Michael, De Nie and Sean, Farrell. Dublin: Irish Academic Press, 2010.Google Scholar
McClaughlin, Trevor. Barefoot and Pregnant? Irish Famine Orphans in Australia: Documents and Register. Melbourne: Genealogical Society of Victoria, 1991.Google Scholar
MacDonagh, Oliver. “Emigration During the Famine.” In The Great Famine: Essays in Irish History, edited by Edwards, R. D. and Williams, T. D., 319–88. Dublin: Browne and Nolan, 1956.Google Scholar
MacRaild, Donald M., ed. The Great Famine and Beyond: Irish Migrants in Britain in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries. Dublin: Irish Academic Press, 2000.Google Scholar
MacRaild, Donald. The Irish in Britain, 1800–1914. Dundalk: Dundalgan Press, 2006.Google Scholar
Mac Suibhne, Breandán. Subjects Lacking Words: The Gray Zone of the Great Famine. Cork: Cork University Press, 2018.Google Scholar
Maharatna, Arup. “Food Scarcity and Migration: An Overview.” Social Research 81 (2014): 277–98.Google Scholar
Majid, Nisar, Guhad, Adan, Khalif, Abdirahman, et al. Narratives of Famine: Somalia 2011. Tufts University: Feinstein International Center, 2016.Google Scholar
Malthus, Thomas R. Essay on the Principle of Population. London: J. Johnson, 1798.Google Scholar
Malthus, Thomas R. An Investigation of the Cause of the Present High Price of Provisions. London: J. Johnson, 1800.Google Scholar
Malthus, Thomas R. “Newenham and Others on the State of Ireland.” Edinburgh Review XII, no. 24 (1808): 336–55.Google Scholar
Maxwell, Daniel, and Nisar, Majid. Famine in Somalia: Competing Imperatives, Collective Failures, 2011–12. London: Hurst, 2016.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mitchell, Brian R., and Phyllis, Deane. Abstract of British Historical Statistics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1971.Google Scholar
Mokyr, Joel. “Industrialization and Poverty in Ireland and the Netherlands: Some Notes Toward a Comparative Case Study.” Journal of Interdisciplinary History 10, no. 3 (1980): 429–59.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mokyr, Joel. Why Ireland Starved: An Analytical and Quantitative History of the Irish Economy 1800–1850, 2nd ed. London: Allen & Unwin, 1985.Google Scholar
Moran, Gerard. Sending out Ireland’s Poor: Assisted Migration to North America in the Nineteenth Century. Dublin: Four Courts Press, 2004.Google Scholar
Moran, Gerard. “Shovelling out the Paupers: The Irish Poor Law and Emigration During the Great Famine.” In The Famine Irish: Emigration and the Great Hunger, edited by Ciarán, Reilly, 22–40. Dublin: The History Press, 2016.Google Scholar
Neal, Frank. Black ‘47: Britain and the Famine Irish. London: Macmillan, 1998.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Neal, Frank. ‘The Foundations of the Irish Settlement in Newcastle upon Tyne: The Evidence in the 185 Census.” In The Great Famine and Beyond, edited by Donald, M. MacRaild, 71–93. Dublin: Irish Academic Press, 2000.Google Scholar
Newby, Andrew. “Emigration and Clearance from the Island of Barra.” Transactions of the Gaelic Society of Inverness 61 (2000): 116–48.Google Scholar
Nicholson, Asenath. Ireland’s Welcome to the Stranger: Or an Excursion through Ireland, in 1844 and 1845. New York: Baker & Scribner, 1847.Google Scholar
O’Connor, Geraldine. “The Lansdowne Estate, 1848–58: The. Poor Law, Emigration and Estate Management.” Unpublished MA thesis, University College Dublin, 1994.Google Scholar
Ó Gráda, Cormac. Ireland before and after the Famine: Explorations in Economic History. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1993.Google Scholar
Ó Gráda, Cormac. Ireland: A New Economic History 1780–1939. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994.Google Scholar
Ó Gráda, Cormac. Black ‘47 and Beyond: The Great Irish Famine in Economy, History and Memory. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1999.Google Scholar
Ó Gráda, Cormac. “Savings Banks as an Institutional Import: The Case of Nineteenth Century Ireland.” Financial History Review 10, no. 1 (2003): 31–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ó Gráda, Cormac. Famine: A Short History. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2009.Google Scholar
Ó Gráda, Cormac. “Yardsticks for Workhouse Management During the Great Famine.” In Poverty and Welfare in Ireland 1838–1948, edited by Victoria, Crossman and Peter, Gray, 69–96. Dublin: Irish Academic Press, 2011.Google Scholar
Ó Gráda, Cormac. “School Attendance and Literacy in Ireland before the Famine: A Simple Baronial Analysis.” In Irish Primary Education in the Early Nineteenth Century, edited by Garret, FitzGerald, 113–32. Dublin: Royal Irish Academy, 2013.Google Scholar
Ó Gráda, Cormac. Eating People is Wrong: Essays on the History and Future of Famine. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2015.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ó Gráda, Cormac, Tyler, Anbinder, and Simon, Wegge. “Tuosist, Kenmare, and Beyond: Emigration as Famine Relief.” In Kerry: History and Society, edited by Bric, M.. Dublin: Geography Publications, forthcoming 2019.Google Scholar
Ó Gráda, Cormac, and Jean-Michel, Chevet. “Famine and Market in ancien régime France.” Journal of Economic History 62, no. 3 (2002): 706–33.Google ScholarPubMed
Ó Gráda, Cormac, and Kevin, H. O’Rourke. “Migration as Disaster Relief: Lessons from the Great Irish Famine.” European Review of Economic History 1, no. 1 (1997): 3–25.Google Scholar
O’Rourke, Kevin H. “Did the Great Irish Famine Matter?” Journal of Economic History 51, no. 1 (1991): 1–22.Google Scholar
Østby, Gudrun, Henrik, Urdal, Mohammad, Tadjoeddin, et al. “Population Pressure, Horizontal Inequality and Political Violence: A Disaggregated Study of Indonesian Provinces, 1990–2003.” Journal of Development Studies 47, no. 3 (2011): 377–98.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Perdue, Peter C. “The Qing State and the Gansu Grain Market, 1739–1864.” In Chinese History in Economic Perspective, edited by Thomas, Rawski and Lillian, Li, 100–26. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992. Available at https://publishing.%20cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/view?docId=ft6489p0n6&chunk.id=d0e13701&toc.depth=1&toc.id=d0e13701&brand=ucpress.Google Scholar
Persson, Karl-Gunnar. Grain Markets in Europe, 1500–1900: Integration and Deregulation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000.Google Scholar
Purcell, Mary. “Dublin Diocesan Archives: Hamilton Papers (11).” Archivium Hibernicum 54 (2000): 7–196.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ravallion, Martin. “Reaching the Rural Poor through Public Employment: Arguments, Evidence, and Lessons from South Asia.” World Bank Research Observer 6, no. 2 (1991): 153–77.Google Scholar
Read, Charles. “British Economic Policy and Ireland, c.1841–53.” Unpublished Ph.D. diss., Cambridge University, 2017.Google Scholar
Redding, Stephen, and Anthony, J. Venables. “The Economics of Isolation and Distance.” Nordic Journal of Economics 28 (2004): 93–108.Google Scholar
Redding, Stephen, and Daniel, M. Sturm. “The Cost of Remoteness: Evidence from German Division and Reunification.” American Economic Review 98 (2008): 1766–97.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reid, Richard E. “Aspects of Assisted Irish Immigration to New South Wales 1848–1870.” Unpublished Ph.D. diss., Australian National University, 1992.Google Scholar
Reid, Richard, and Cheryl, Mongan. A Decent Set of Girls: The Irish Famine Orphans of the Thomas Arbuthnot 1849–1850. Yass: Yass Heritage Project, 1996.Google Scholar
Richards, Eric. A History of the Highland Clearances. London: Croom Helm, 1982.Google Scholar
Robinson, Courtland, Linnea, Zimmerman, and Francesco, Checchi. Internal and External Displacement among Populations of Southern and Central Somalia Affected by Severe Food Insecurity and Famine during 2010–2012. Washington, DC: FEWS NET, 2014.Google Scholar
Schrier, Arnold. Ireland and the American Emigration 1850–1900. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1959.Google Scholar
Senior, Nassau William. Journals, Conversations and Essays Relating to Ireland. 2 vols. London: Longman, 1868.Google Scholar
Shiue, Carol H. “Local Granaries and Central Government Disaster Relief: Moral Hazard and Intergovernmental Finance in Eighteenth- and Nineteenth-Century China.” Journal of Economic History 64, no. 1 (2004): 100–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sirkeci, Ibrahim, Jeffrey, H. Cohen, and Dilip, Ratha, eds. Migration and Remittances during the Global Financial Crisis and Beyond. Washington, DC: World Bank, 2012.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, Adam. An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations. Campbell, R. H. and Skinner, A. S., eds. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1776 [1976].Google Scholar
Solar, Peter M. “The Great Irish Famine Was No Ordinary Subsistence Crisis.” In Famine: The Irish Experience 900–1900, edited by Margaret Crawford, E., 112–31. Edinburgh: John Donald, 1989.Google Scholar
Solar, Peter M. “Occupation, Poverty and Social Class in Pre-Famine Ireland, 1740–1850.” In The Cambridge Social History of Modern Ireland, edited by Eugenio, F. Biagini and Mary, E. Daly, 25–37. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2017.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Solar, Peter M., and Malcolm, T. Smith. “Background Migration: The Irish (and Other Strangers) in Mid-Victorian Hertfordshire.” Local Population Studies 82 (2009): 44–62.Google Scholar
Tauger, Mark. “Natural Disaster and Human Actions in the Soviet Famine of 1931–1933.” Carl Beck Papers in Russian and East European Studies No. 1506, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburg, PA, 2001.Google Scholar
Tyson, Robert. “Landlord Policies and Population Change in North-East Scotland and the Western Isles, 1755–1841.” Northern Scotland 19 (1999): 63–74.Google ScholarPubMed
Verpoorten, Marijke. “Leave None to Claim the Land: A Malthusian Catastrophe in Rwanda?” Journal of Peace Research 49, no. 4 (2012): 547–63.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Walker, Brian. “Villain, Victim or Prophet: Sir William Gregory and the Great Famine.” Irish Historical Studies 38, no. 152 (2013): 579–99.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wegge, Simone, Tyler, Anbinder, and Cormac, Ó Gráda. “Immigrants and Savers: A Rich New Database on the Irish in 1850s New York.” Historical Methods 50, no. 3 (2017): 144–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wemheuer, Felix. Famine Politics in Moist China and the Soviet Union. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2014.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wheatcroft, Stephen G. “Soviet and Chinese Famines in Historical Perspective.” In Hunger and Scarcity under Socialist Rule, edited by Matthias, Middell and Felix, Wemheuer, 307–42. Leipzig: Leipziger Universitätsverlag, 2010.Google Scholar
Will, Pierre-Étienne. Bureaucracy and Famine in Eighteenth Century China. Elborg, Forster, trans. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1990.Google Scholar
Wilson, Catherine Anne. New Lease on Life: Landlords, Tenants, and Immigrants in Ireland and Canada. Montreal: McGill-Queens University Press, 1994.Google Scholar
Withers, Charles W. J. “Destitution and Migration: Labour Mobility and Relief from Famine in Highland Scotland 1836–1850.” Journal of Historical Geography 14, no. 2 (1988): 128–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Woodham-Smith, Cecil. The Great Hunger: Ireland 1845–1849. London: Hamilton, 1962.Google Scholar
Wootton, David. Power, Pleasure and Profit: Insatiable Appetites from Machiavelli to Madison. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2018.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
World Bank. Migration and Remittances Factbook 2016, 3rd edition. Washington, DC: World Bank, 2016. doi:10.1596/978-1-4648-0319-2 (available at https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/23743/9781464803192.pdf?sequence=3&isAllowed=y).Google Scholar
Wright, C. J. “Fitzmaurice, Henry Petty-, Third Marquess of Lansdowne (1780–1863).” In Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, 2009.Google Scholar
Zhou, Xun. Forgotten Voices of Mao’s Great Famine, 1958–1962. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2013.Google Scholar