1. For illustrations of this departmentalist and judicial review skeptic literature see Murphy, Walter F., “Who Shall Interpret? The Quest for the Ultimate Constitutional Interpreter,” The Review of Politics 48 (1986): 401–23Google Scholar; Peabody, Bruce G., “Overcoming Judicial Supremacy: A Constitutional Primer” The Good Society 10 (2001): 57–62 Google Scholar; Tushnet, Mark, Taking the Constitution Away from the Courts (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1999)Google Scholar; Kramer, Larry D., The People Themselves: Popular Constitutionalism and Judicial Review (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004)Google Scholar; Fisher, Louis, Constitutional Dialogues: Interpretation as Political Process (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2014)Google Scholar; and Fisher, Louis, Defending Congress and the Constitution (Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas, 2011)Google Scholar.

2. Kirk, Russell, John Randolph of Roanoke: A Study in American Politics With Selected Speeches and Letters (Indianapolis, Indiana: Libertypress, 1978), 24 Google Scholar.

3. Vile, M.J.C., Constitutionalism and the Separation of Powers, 2nd ed. (Indianapolis: Liberty Fund, 1998), 183 Google Scholar. For a short overview of Taylor's political thought, see Wright, Benjamin F., “The Philosopher of Jeffersonian Democracy,” The American Political Science Review 22 (1928) 870–92Google Scholar.

4. Kirk, John Randolph of Roanoke 16–17.

5. Sir Coke, Edward, “Thomas Bonham v. College of Physicians,” in The Selected Writings and Speeches of Sir Edward Coke, ed. Sheppard, Steve (Indianapolis: Liberty Fund, 2003), 1:264Google Scholar.

6. Hamburger, Philip, Law and Judicial Duty (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2008), 2–14, 207Google Scholar; Kramer, The People Themselves, 20.

7. LaCroix, Alison L., The Ideological Origins of American Federalism (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2010), 139–45Google Scholar.

8. Prakash, Saikrishna B. and Yoo, John C., “The Origins of Judicial Review,” in The University of Chicago Law Review 70 (2003): 887–982, at 933–34Google Scholar.

9. Madison, James, Notes of the Debates in the Federal Convention of 1787 Reported by James Madison (New York: W.W. Norton and Company, 1987)Google Scholar. For particular references to judges ruling on constitutionality, see Elbridge Gerry on June 4 (at 61), Madison on June 6 (at 79–80), Gouverneur Morris on July 17 (at 305), and Luther Martin and George Mason on July 21 (at 340–42).

10. Treanor, William Michael, “Judicial Review Before Marbury ,” Stanford Law Review 58 (2005): 455–562, at 457–58Google Scholar.

11. The first two upheld a federal and state law, respectively, whereas Ware struck down a state law as inconsistent with the Treaty of Paris.

12. Stoner, James, “Who Has Authority Over the Constitution?” in The Supreme Court and the Idea of Constitutionalism, ed. Kautz, Steven, Melzer, Arthur, Weinberger, Jerry, and Zinman, M. Richard (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2011), 101–2Google Scholar.

13. Wythe, Commonwealth v. Caton & al. 8 Va. (4 call) 5 (1782).

14. Pendleton quoted in Hobson, Charles F., The Great Chief Justice: John Marshall and the Rule of Law (Lawrence, KS: University of Kansas Press, 1996), 44 Google Scholar. Hobson contends that Pendleton was a precursor to Marshall's form of judicial review, although Miller asserts that Pendleton was merely trying to defend the judiciary's independence, and generally believed that the legislature was not to be judged, as it represented the people's will. Furthermore, Miller sees Pendleton and Wythe as the point of divergence in Virginia legal philosophy, with Wythe being the forebear of Marshall and Pendleton being a precursor of Roane and Taylor. See Miller, F. Thornton, Juries and Judges Versus the Law: Virginia's Provincial Legal Perspective, 1783–1828 (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1994), 63–65 Google Scholar.

15. Spencer Roane, Kamper v. Hawkins, 3 Va. 20, (1793); Hobson, The Great Chief Justice, 66.

16. Huebner, Timothy S., The Southern Judicial Tradition: State Judges and Sectional Distinctiveness, 1790–1890 (Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press, 1999), 18 Google Scholar.

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19. Risjord, Norman K., The Old Republicans: Southern Conservatism in the Age of Jefferson (New York: Columbia University Press, 1965), 1 Google Scholar.

20. Ibid., 86–95.

21. Skowronek, Stephen, The Politics Presidents Make: Leadership from John Adams to Bill Clinton (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1997), 81 Google Scholar.

22. Taylor to Wilson Cary Nicholas, October 26, 1807, in Cunningham, Noble E. Jr., The Jeffersonian Republicans in Power: Party Operations, 1801–1809 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1963), 231 Google Scholar.

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24. Graber, Mark A., Dred Scott and the Problem of Constitutional Evil (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006)Google Scholar.

25. Van Cleve, A Slaveholder's Union, 140. Van Cleve does note, however, that tampering with election rules at the state level likely deprived Jefferson of electoral votes that he otherwise would have received, offsetting the benefits that he gained from the premium. Nonetheless, others have argued that the three-fifths clause enabled Southern dominance of the federal government up to the Civil War, see Wills, Garry, “Negro President”: Jefferson and the Slave Power (Boston: Houghton Mifflin and Co., 2003), 5 Google Scholar; and Graber, Dred Scott, 115–16.

26. Riley, Padraig, Slavery and the Democratic Conscience: Political Life in Jeffersonian America (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2016)Google Scholar.

27. Van Cleve, A Slaveholder's Union, 267.

28. Johnson, Walter, River of Dark Dreams: Slavery and Empire in the Cotton Kingdom (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2013), 372–73, 404Google Scholar.

29. Van Cleve, A Slaveholder's Union, 96–99. For a broader discussion on law in Virginia's slave society, see Tomlins, Christopher, Freedom Bound: Law, Labor, and Civic Identity in Colonizing English America, 1580–1865 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), 258–77Google Scholar; and Tomlins, Law, Labor, and Ideology in the Early American Republic (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 250–63Google Scholar.

30. Cover, Robert M., Justice Accused: Antislavery and the Judicial Process (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1984), 71–72 Google Scholar; and Wolf, Eva Shepherd, Race and Liberty in the New Nation: Emancipation in Virginia from the Revolution to Nat Turner's Rebellion (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2006), 155–56Google Scholar. See also Pleasants v. Pleasants 6 Va. (2 Call) 319 (1799) and Charles v. Hunnicutt (5 Call) 311 (1803).

31. Cover, Justice Accused, 52–54. Hudgins v. Wright 1 Hen. & M. 134, 11 Va. 134 (Va. Nov. 7, 1806). Unfortunately, Wythe's original opinion has not survived.

32. Hobson, The Great Chief Justice, 66–67; Kramer, The People Themselves, 125–26.

33. Kramer, The People Themselves 123–28.

34. Jefferson to William Johnson, June 12, 1823, in Jefferson, Thomas (ed. Peterson, Merrill D.), Writings, (New York: Literary Classics of the United States, Inc., 1984), 1474 Google Scholar.

35. Mendelson, Wallace, “Jefferson on Judicial Review: Consistency through Change,” The University of Chicago Law Review 29 (1962), 328–29Google Scholar. Mendelson argues that Jefferson supported judicial supremacy before 1800 and changed his position in opposition to the Marshall Court. However, Jefferson phrased his support for judicial review as a “legal check” or “legal obstacle.” Taken alongside his linkage of judicial review with the executive veto, it seems that Jefferson maintained a concurrent review position going back at least to 1787 which he consistently held into the 1800s.

36. Patterson, C. Perry, “Jefferson and Judicial Review,” American Bar Journal 30 (1944), 445–46Google Scholar.

37. Jefferson to Torrance, W.H., June 11, 1815, in The Writings of Thomas Jefferson, ed. Ford., Paul (New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1898), 9:517–18Google Scholar.

38. Jefferson to Spencer Roane, September 6, 1819, in Writings, 1426.

39. Ibid., 1426–28.

40. Jefferson in Mayer, David N., The Constitutional Thought of Thomas Jefferson (Charlottesville, Virginia: University of Virginia Press, 1994), 269 Google Scholar.

41. Clinton, Robert Lowry, Marbury v. Madison and Judicial Review (Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas, 1989), 24–26 Google Scholar.

42. Madison in Brown, Stephen P., “Mirroring Madison: The Historic and Continuing Influence of James Madison on the U.S. Supreme Court,” in James Madison: Philosopher, Founder, Statesman, ed. Vile, John R., Pederson, William D., and Williams, Frank J. (Athens, OH: Ohio University Press, 2008), 160 Google Scholar.

43. Madison in Clinton, Marbury v. Madison and Judicial Review, 27.

44. “Brutus XV,” in The Anti-Federalist Papers and the Constitutional Convention Debates, ed. Ketcham, Ralph. (New York: New American Library, 2003), 305 Google Scholar. “Brutus” was likely Robert Yates, eventual chief justice of the New York Supreme Court. Ralph Ketcham, introduction to “’Brutus,’ Essays I, VI, X–XII, and XV,” in The Anti-Federalist Papers, 269, 307, 309.

45. John Randolph in Johnson, David E., John Randolph of Roanoke (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2012), 61 Google Scholar.

46. Kramer, The People Themselves, 48.

47. Kirk, John Randolph of Roanoke, 209.

48. Marshall to Samuel Chase, January 23, 1805, in The Papers of John Marshall, ed. Hobson, Charles (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1974), 6:347–48Google Scholar.

49. Wood, Gordon S., Empire of Liberty: A History of the Early Republic, 1789–1815. The Oxford History of the United States (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), 423 Google Scholar.

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51. Ibid., 223.

52. Taylor, John, An Inquiry into the Principles and Policy of the Government of the United States (Fredericksburg, Virginia: Green and Cady, 1814), 179 Google Scholar.

53. Mudge, Eugene Tenbroeck, The Social Philosophy of John Taylor of Caroline: A Study in Jeffersonian Democracy. Number 4 of the Columbia Studies in American Culture (New York: Columbia University Press, 1939), 124–25Google Scholar.

54. Sheldon, Garrett Ward and Hill, C. William Jr., The Liberal Republicanism of John Taylor of Caroline (Teaneck, New Jersey: Farleigh Dickinson University Press, 2008), 214 Google Scholar. Explanations for why Taylor did not propose judicial nominees as a solution range from the practical issue suggested by Sheldon and Hill that Monroe might not have had the requisite votes in the Senate to the more philosophical consideration that nominating federal judges to fix the problem might admit that the Supreme Court had the power that Taylor was trying to deny them in the first place.

55. Sheldon and Hill, Liberal Republicanism, 106.

56. Taylor, Tyranny, 152.

57. See Virginia Constitution of 1776.

58. Taylor, Inquiry, 208.

59. Sheldon and Hill, Liberal Republicanism, 107.

60. Howe, Daniel Walker, What Hath God Wrought: The Transformation of America, 1815–1848 The Oxford History of the United States. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007), 122–23Google Scholar.

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63. Wood, Empire of Liberty, 419. Marshall's tenure on the Court is a classic example of “partisan entrenchment,” in which a party places its partisans on the judiciary who are then able to enact the party's interpretation of the Constitution even after their party is no longer in power. See Balkin, Jack M. and Levinson, Sanford, “Understanding the Constitutional Revolution,” Virginia Law Review 87 (2001): 1045–104, at 1065–66Google Scholar.

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65. Swisher, Carl Brent, The Growth of Constitutional Power in the United States (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1946), 55 Google Scholar.

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70. Kirk, John Randolph of Roanoke 156–89. Randolph's quotes are on pages 185 and 159, respectively. Kirk's are on pages 156 and 185, respectively.

71. Most of Taylor's discussion on slavery can be found in Taylor, John, Arator: Being a Series of Agricultural Essays, Practical and Political, in Sixty-Four Numbers (Indianapolis: Liberty Fund, 1977)Google Scholar.

72. Taylor, John, Construction Construed and Constitutions Vindicated (Richmond, VA: Shepherd and Pollard, 1820), 32 Google Scholar.

73. Hill, The Political Theory of John Taylor of Caroline, 197.

74. Ibid., 263–64.

75. Madison, Notes, 31; Madison in Gutzman, Kevin R. C., James Madison and the Making of America (New York: St. Martin's Press, 2012), 111 Google Scholar.

76. James Madison, Federalist 39, 32.

77. James Madison, Federalist 45, 253.

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80. Fritz, Christian G., American Sovereigns: The People and America's Constitutional Tradition Before the Civil War. Cambridge Studies on the American Constitution (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 208–9Google Scholar.

81. Hamilton, Federalist 78, 414–15.

82. James Madison, “’Mr. Madison's Report’ to the Virginia General Assembly,” in Madison, We the States, 165.

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85. Miller, Juries and Judges, 83.

86. Martin v. Hunter's Lessee, 14 U.S. Wheat 304 (1816). Notably, Marshall, Story, and other Federalists viewed the power of inferior federal courts as crucial not only to the establishment of federal judicial power, but also to the federal government's power generally. See LaCroix, Alison L., “Federalists, Federalism, and Federal Jurisdiction,” Law and History Review 30 (2012): 205–44Google Scholar.

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88. William Brockenbrough, “Amphictyon I,” in John Marshall's Defense, 63–64.

89. Roane, “Hampden I,” in John Marshall's Defense, 109.

90. Roane, “Hampden IV,” in John Marshall's Defense, 153. Roane did not reject implied powers out of hand, accepting those that are “fairly incident” and restricted by necessity. See “Hampden II,” 117–24.

91. Roane, “Hampden II,” in John Marshall's Defense, 116–17.

92. Roane, “Hampden IV,” in John Marshall's Defense, 138–54.

93. Brockenbrough, “Amphictryon I,” in John Marshall's Defense, 58.

94. Cohens v. Virginia, 19 U.S. 6 Wheat. 264, (1821), 406.

95. Gutzman, Kevin R.C., Virginia's American Revolution: From Dominion to Republic, 1776–1840 (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books Inc., 2007), 175 Google Scholar.

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97. Marshall quoted. in Hobson, The Great Chief Justice, 125.

98. John Marshall, “A Friend to the Union I,” in John Marshall's Defense, 82–89.

99. John Marshall, “A Friend to the Constitution V,” 187–88.

100. Cohens, 384–85; and Osborn v. Bank of the United States, 22 U.S. 738, (1824), 808.

101. Cohens, 414; and Madison, Federalist 39, 209.

102. Cohens, 414–15; Hobson, The Great Chief Justice, 131.

103. Hobson, The Great Chief Justice, 147.

104. Taylor, Tyranny, 148; Sheldon and Hill, Liberal Republicanism, 170–71.

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106. Taylor, Inquiry, 201.

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108. Taylor, Inquiry, 197, 200.

109. Taylor, Tyranny, 150.

110. Ibid.

111. Sheldon and Hill, Liberal Republicanism, 171. Sheldon and Hill note that it is unclear where Taylor received this information about the debates, as Madison's journal would not be published until after Taylor's death, and William Jackson's journal was largely devoid of debate content. The most likely culprit is Robert Yates’ journal which was published in 1821, the same year as Tyranny Unmasked, although Yates’ journal is incomplete because he left the Convention early.

112. Taylor, Tyranny, 203–4.

113. Mudge, Social Philosophy of John Taylor, 125.

114. Taylor, Tyranny, 150; and Taylor, New Views, 138.

115. Taylor, Tyranny, 204.

116. Taylor, New Views, 128–29.

117. Ibid., 255.

118. Ibid., 255–57.

119. Sheldon and Hill, Liberal Republicanism, 221–22.

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121. Jefferson to Thomas Ritchie, December 25, 1820, in Writings, 1445.

122. Jefferson to Roane, September 6, 1819, in Writings, 1425.

123. Jefferson to William Johnson, June 12, 1823, in Writings, 1473.

124. Jefferson to Roane, 1426; Jefferson to Ritchie, 1446.

125. Jefferson, “Autobiography,” in Writings, 73–74.

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143. See Eakin v. Raub, 12 Sargeant & Rawl (Pennsylvania Supreme Court) 330 (1825).

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