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Published online by Cambridge University Press: 05 February 2009
Recently, several New Testament scholars have examined the lists of hardships found in the Pauline epistles and their relation to similar lists in other ancient writings. For example, in Cracks in an Earthen Vessel, John Fitzgerald interprets several ‘catalogues of hardships’ in the Corinthian correspondence based upon his study of the ancient, Greco-Roman literary practice of compiling lists of hardships. Fitzgerald seeks ‘a clarification of the forms and functions of peristasis catalogues in general and Paul's in particular’. Similarly, Martin Ebner seeks an understanding of the forms, motifs, and functions of hardship lists throughout Paul's writings as his subtitle (Untersuchungen zu Form, Motivik und Funktion der Peristasenkataloge bei Paulus) indicates. Yet while adding to the span of knowledge of peristasis catalogues, both Fitzgerald and Ebner have largely ignored important aspects of the form and function of hardship lists in some ancient writings. Furthermore, a crucial connection between the ancient, Greco-Roman use of peristasis catalogues and Paul's apostleship of weakness as exemplified in 2 Cor 11.23b–33 has been insufficiently analyzed.
1 Cf. Hodgson, R., ‘Paul the Apostle and First Century Tribulation Lists’, ZNW 74 (1983) 59–80CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Fitzgerald, J. T., Cracks in an Earthen Vessel: An Examination of the Catalogues of Hardships in the Corinthian Correspondence (SBLDS 99; Atlanta: Scholars, 1988)Google Scholar; Ferrari, M. S., Die Sprache des Leids in den paulinischen Peristasenkatalogen (SBB 23; Stuttgart: Katholisches Bibelwerk, 1991)Google Scholar; Ebner, M., Leidenslisten und Apostelbrief: Untersuchungen zu Form, Motivik und Funktion der Peristasenkataloge bei Paulus (FB 66; Würzburg: Echter, 1991)Google Scholar. For an important study on Paul's suffering in light of Old Testament and Jewish traditions, cf. Kleinknecht, K. T., Die leidende Gerechtfertigte: Die alttestamentlich–jüdische Tradition vom ‘leidenden Gerechten’ und ihre Rezeption bei Paulus (WUNT 2.13; Tübingen: Mohr, 1984).Google Scholar
2 Fitzgerald, Cracks, 2.
3 Ronald Hock makes a similar critique in his review of Fitzgerald's monograph in JBL 108 (1989) 745–8Google Scholar, esp. 747–8.
4 On 2 Cor 11.23b–33, cf. Ebner, Leidenslisten, 93–172 and Ferrari, Sprache des Leids, 237–59. Fitzgerald did not specifically analyze the catalogue of hardships in 2 Cor 11 in his monograph, but such an examination can be found in his 1984 Yale dissertation of the same title.
5 Fitzgerald, Cracks, 47–9.
6 A summary of the forms is found in Ebner, Leidenslisten, 390–1. Ebner reveals how individual catalogues of hardships in Paul adhere to specific forms at various places throughout his book. On 2 Cor 11.23–9, cf. 112–18.
7 For a history of research on the peristasis catalogues, cf. Fitzgerald, Cracks, 7–31; Ebner, Leidenslisten, 2–7, and Ferrari, Sprache des Leids, 25–80.
8 Barré, M. L., ‘Paul as “Eschatological Person”: A New Look at 2 Cor 11:29’, CBQ 37 (1975) 500–26, esp. 503, 519–26.Google Scholar
9 Hodgson, ‘Paul the Apostle’, 63.
10 Fitzgerald, Cracks, 129–32, 166–80, 184–201; Hodgson, ‘Paul the Apostle’, 63–6. Cf. Martin, R. P., 2 Corinthians (WBC 40; Waco, Texas: Word, 1986) 368–9.Google Scholar
11 Fitzgerald briefly discusses the term peristasis (‘circumstance’ or ‘adverse, unfavourable circumstance’) in the works of several rhetoricians yet only in relation to θέσις, ύπόθεσις, διήγησις, chreia, and epicheireme. Cf. Cracks (SBLDS 99) 36–7. Moreover, a study of the term peristasis itself is not as beneficial as an examination of the way ancient rhetoricians used lists of hardships, dangers, or difficult circumstances.
12 Cf. Aristotle Rhetoric 1.9. References to and translations from ancient writers may be found in the Loeb Classical Library unless otherwise indicated.
13 On epideictic rhetoric or oratory in the ancient world, cf. Kennedy, G., The Art of Persuasion in Greece (Princeton: Princeton University, 1963) 152–203.Google Scholar
14 Cicero De Oratore 2.343–6. Cf. Cicero De Partitione Oratoria 77; Quintilian Institutio Oratorio 3.7.12.
15 Rhetorica ad Alexandrum 1426a12–15.
16 Editions of the προγυμνάσματα of Theon include Rhetores Graeci vol. 2 (ed. L. Spengel; Leipzig: Teubner, 1854) 57–130Google Scholar and more recently, Butts, J. R., ‘The Progymnasmata of Theon: A New Text with Translation and Commentary’ (PhD. dissertation, Claremont Graduate School, 1987) 96–569Google Scholar. For the reference and translation above, cf. Butts, ‘Progymnasmata of Theon’, 474–6 = Spengel 111–12.
17 Cf. Cicero De Oratore 2.349; Quintilian Institutio Oratoria 3.7.19; Rhetorica ad Alexandrum 1425b36–40; and Rhetorica ad Herennium 3.6.10.
18 Butts, ‘Progymnasmata of Theon’, 476–7 = Spengel 112.
19 Aristotle Rhetoric 1.9.1.
20 The significance of καταάλογοι (‘catalogues’ or ‘lists’) in the writings of the rhetoricians is noteworthy. Ancient rhetoricians understood catalogues to carry out the function of amplification (αὒξησις or amplificatio). Cicero (De Partitione Oratorio 21.72) states that one amplifies a speech by using ‘frequent repetitions of parallels and similes and contraries and doublets and rhythmic periods … [in order] to satisfy the ear with what may be called suitable verbal quality’. This methodical repetition of items known as amplification is used to persuade the audience of a subject's virtue or vice. The majority of the writers of the τέχναι and προγυμνάσματα state that amplification is especially suitable for speeches of praise or blame. Cf. Aristotle Rhetoric 1.9.39–40; Cicero De Partitione Oratoria 21.70–2; and Rhetorica ad Alexandrum 1426b16–21. Fitzgerald sketches ancient and modern views on the use of ‘catalogues’ and points to their use in the amplification of a subject in his dissertation (45–60). Unfortunately, this section was left out of his published monograph.
21 Fitzgerald, Cracks, 47–116. Independently, M. Ebner makes similar arguments throughout his book. For a summary of Ebner's findings, cf. Leidenslisten, 387–97.
22 Fitzgerald, Cracks, 61–2, 66–9, and 115.
23 Fitzgerald, Cracks, 100.
24 Seneca Epistolae Morales 66.21.
25 Epictetus Discourses 3.22.45–9.
26 Epictetus Discourses 2.1.10–11.
27 Dio Chrysostom Discourses 8.15–18. Cf. Discourses 16.1–5 for similar sentiments.
28 Forbes, C., ‘Comparison, Self-Praise, and Irony: Paul's Boasting and the Conventions of Hellenistic Rhetoric’, NTS 32 (1986) 1–30CrossRefGoogle Scholar, esp. 19.
29 Marshall, P., Enmity in Corinth: Social Conventions in Paul's Relations with the Corinthians (WUNT 2.23; Tübingen: Mohr, 1987) 351–2, 361Google Scholar. Cf. Garland, D. E., ‘Paul's Apostolic Authority: The Power of Christ Sustaining Weakness (2 Corinthians 10–13)’, RevExp 86 (1989) 371–89, esp. 378–9Google Scholar and earlier Judge, E. A., ‘Paul's Boasting in Relation to Contemporary Professional Practice’, AusBR 10 (1968) 37–50, esp. 47–50.Google Scholar
30 Dio Chrysostom Discourses 14.12.
31 Plutarch Moralia 599F; cf. the entire essay on exile in Moralia 599A–607F.
32 One possible hint that Paul's reaction to the hardships will be one of submission lies in his use of the word μέριμνα (‘anxiety’) in 11.28. In a recent article, David Balch has argued that ‘anxiety’ or ‘being anxious’ carries a negative connotation for Paul and the Stoics. Cf. ‘1 Cor 7:32–35 and Stoic Debate about Marriage, Anxiety, and Distraction’, JBL 102 (1983) 429–39, esp. 435–6Google Scholar. When viewed negatively, μέριμνα in 11.28 is not a hardship to be faced but a reaction to be avoided. The difficulty in labelling 11.28 as ‘Paul's negative reaction’ lies in the fact that elsewhere the apostle apparently uses the verb μεριμνάω in a positive manner. For example, in Phil 2.19–20 Paul comforts the Christians at Philippi with the knowledge that Timothy cares (μεριμνάω) for them. Therefore, Paul's ‘anxiety for the churches’ in 11.28 need not signal the negative reaction of the apostle to hardships listed in 11.23b–27.
33 Cf. Furnish, V. P., II Corinthians (AB 32A; Garden City, New York: Doubleday, 1984) 519–20Google Scholar; Martin, 2 Corinthians, 382; Hodgson, ‘Paul the Apostle’, 64, 66; and Garland, ‘Paul's Apostolic Authority’, 378–9.
34 For example, Quintilian (Institutio Oratoria 3.7.12) praises Tydeus (cf. Iliad 5.800–2) despite his physical weakness (infirmitas) because even though he was ‘small of stature’, he was also ‘a good fighter’.
35 Gerd Theissen has set the groundwork for understanding the status implications of άσθένεια. Cf. The Social Setting of Pauline Christianity: Essays on Corinth (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1988) 121–43.Google Scholar Forbes (‘Comparison’, 19–20) has noted the reference to status in regard to 11.29.
36 Martin, 2 Corinthians, 382. Cf. C. K. Barrett, A Commentary on the Second Epistle to the Corinthians (New York: Harper & Row, 1973) 301–2.
37 On indignation, cf. Barrett, Second Epistle, 302; Sampley, J. Paul, ‘Paul, His Opponents in 2 Corinthians 10–13, and the Rhetorical Handbooks’, The Social World of Formative Christianity and Judaism (ed. Neusner, J. et al. ; Philadelphia: Fortress, 1988) 162–77, esp. 168Google Scholar; Furnish, II Corinthians, 513, 520; and Martin, 2 Corinthians, 382–3. On the fiery test, cf. Forbes, ‘Comparison’, 20 and Barré, ‘Paul as “Eschatological Person”’, 517–18.
38 Scholars have argued that τίς in 11.29 refers to the opponents (Barré, ‘Paul as “Eschatological Person” ’, 518) or to no one in particular (Furnish, II Corinthians, 520 and Fitzgerald, ‘Cracks’ [dissertation] 389–90). Although Furnish and Fitzgerald are correct that τίς appears to be used ‘rhetorically’ since Paul does not actually add ‘among you’ to the questions in 11.29, the Corinthian Christians are also to look for the ‘weak’ and ‘entrapped’ persons among themselves.
39 Hans Dieter Betz argues that the picture of Paul in 11.23b–28 is that of a Cynic encountering difficulties. Cf. the section entitled ‘Das σχῆμα des Apostels’ in Der Apostel Paulus und die sokratische Tradition: Eine exegetische Untersuchung zu seiner ‘Apologie’ 2 Korinther 10–13 (BHT 45; Tübingen: Mohr, 1972) 44–57Google Scholar. However, 11.29 reveals that Paul does not appeal to the Cynic virtues of αύτάρκεια (‘self-sufficiency’), άπάθεια (‘freedom from passion’), or άνδρεία (‘courage’). For correct views, cf. Marshall, Enmity in Corinth, 358–9; Furnish, II Corinthians, 541; Hodgson, ‘Paul the Apostle’, 68.
40 Rather than simply being one item in a long list of difficult circumstances, this final hardship is told by Paul in narrative form. Fitzgerald has argued correctly that catalogues in the ancient world were ‘elastic’ in that one item may be amplified greatly over another. Cf. Fitzgerald, ‘Cracks’ (dissertation) 57–8.
41 Judge places Paul's escape down the wall in the context of the corona muralis which is a Roman military award for the first soldier up the wall of an enemy city. Cf. ‘The Conflict of Educational Aims in N.T. Thought’, Journal of Christian Education 9 (1966) 32–45, esp. 44–5Google Scholar. As a soldier gains honour for ascending the wall first, so Paul claims dishonour for descending the wall at night. Furnish (II Corinthians, 542) states that, if Judge is correct, then ‘there would be a curious reversal of the military imagery Paul applied to his apostolate earlier in the letter (10.3–6).’ Yet a ‘curious reversal’ of the imagery in 11.32–3 is found in 10.13–17. While being dishonourable for fleeing Damascus, Paul is honourable for being the first to assail Corinth.
42 Cf. Cicero De Inventione 1.16.22 and Butts, ‘Progymnasmata of Theon’, 468–9 (= Spengel 110) for the praise of acts of courage.
43 Yet the peristasis catalogue in 11.23b–33 does differ greatly from other catalogues of hardship in the Corinthian correspondence (e.g., 1 Cor 4.9–13; 2 Cor 4.7–12; 6.3–10). In these previous lists, a reference to some type of battle against or endurance of the hardships is evident. For example, Paul blesses (εύλογέω) when reviled and endures (άνέχομαι) when persecuted (1 Cor 4.12); he is afflicted but not crushed, struck down but not destroyed (2 Cor 4.8–9); and the apostle commends himself for great endurance (ύπομονή) in hardships and trials (2 Cor 6.4). No such embattlement or endurance is found in 2 Cor 11.23b–33 where Paul's submission to hardships reveals the extreme manner in which the apostle is willing to argue in 2 Cor 10–13 for his place as a leader of the Corinthian Christians against the opponents. Cf. Section 3 below.
44 2 Cor 10–13 is generally regarded as a separate letter of Paul. Cf. Furnish (II Corinthians, 30–41) for a convenient summary of the literary integrity of 2 Cor.
45 Cf. Furnish (II Corinthians, 49) and Garland ('Paul the Apostle’, 384 n. 3) for a quick survey of scholarly proposals in regard to an identification of the opponents based on their doctrine or origin. Cf. Sumney, J. L., Identifying Paul's Opponents: The Question of Method in 2 Corinthians (JSNT Sup 40; Sheffield: JSOT, 1990)Google Scholar for a detailed survey and critique of recent scholarly views on the opponents.
46 For works leading in this direction, cf. Betz, Apostel Paulus; Malherbe, A. J., ‘Antisthenes and Odysseus, and Paul at War’, HTR 76 (1983) 143–73Google Scholar, now found in Paul and the Popular Philosophers (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1989) 91–119Google Scholar; Marshall, Enmity in Corinth; Forbes, ‘Comparison’; and Furnish, II Corinthians.
47 Many scholars conclude that the apostle is parodying the adversaries' citation of their achievements. Cf. Judge, ‘Paul's Boasting’, 47–50 followed by Forbes, ‘Comparison’, 19 and Furnish, II Corinthians, 535. They conclude that while the opponents glory in beneficial circumstances and in the display of their powers and deeds, Paul lists his hardships. While some parodying may occur, such an emphasis ignores the fact that the ancients praised or denounced the way one deals with difficult circumstances and not the circumstances themselves. Hence, the opponents could list difficult circumstances and still assert their virtue by means of endurance. In fact, 2 Cor 11.23b implies that they were praising themselves in this manner.
48 Cf. Betz, H. D., ‘The Problem of Rhetoric and Theology according to the Apostle Paul‘, L'Apôtre Paul: personnalité, style, et conception du ministère (ed. Vanhoye, A.; Leuven: University: 1986) 16–48Google Scholar, esp. 43–4; Hodgson, ‘Paul the Apostle’, 80; and Marshall, Enmity in Corinth, 384.
49 Martin, D., Slavery as Salvation: The Metaphor of Slavery in Pauline Christianity (New Haven: Yale University, 1990) 92.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
50 Martin, Slavery as Salvation, 92; cf. 92–100.
51 While Cyrus and Odysseus were common heroes in Cynic writings, Martin also notes that positive depictions of the demagogue were not exclusive to Cynics. For example, he cites parts of Philo's On Joseph and Dio Chrysostom's forty–third discourse, A Political Address in his Native City. Cf. Martin, Slavery as Salvation, 93–4, 101–8.
52 Antisthenis Fragmenta (ed. F. D. Caizzi; Milan-Varese: Istituto Editoriale Cisalpino, 1966) fragments 14 and 15.Google Scholar
