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⁴ Wright, William, A Grammar of the Arabic Language, 3rd edition, 2 volumes in one (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1967 reprint).Google Scholar

⁵ Cantarino, Vincente, The Syntax of Modern Arabic Prose, 3 vols. (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1974).Google Scholar

⁶ Ibid.

⁷ Ibid, p. 48.

⁸ Ibid, p. 67.

⁹ Ibid, p. 77.

¹⁰ This observation was noted to me by my student Kenya Torres.

¹¹ Edward, Said, Orientalism, (New York: Vintage Books, 1978), p. 123.Google Scholar

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¹³ See for example Chafe’s, Wallace treatment of orality and literacy in “Integration and Involvement in Speaking, Writing, and Oral Literature,” in Tannen, Deborah (ed.) Spoken and Written Language: Exploring Orality and Literacy (Norwood, New Jersey: Ablex, 1982), pp. 35–52.Google Scholar

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¹⁶ Linell, , The Written Language Bias in Linguistics (New York: Routledge, 2005), p. 214.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

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¹⁸ Bakhtin, , The Dialogic Imagination, p. 279, “the word is born in dialogueGoogle Scholar.” See also O’Connell, Daniel C. and Kowal, Sabine, “Psycholinguistics: A Half Century of Monologism,” American Journal of Psychology 116 (2003), pp. 191–212CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed; Linell, , Approaching Dialogue; and Suleiman, Camelia and O’Connell, Daniel C., “Gender differences,” (2008).Google Scholar

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²² See Versteegh, Kees, The Arabic Language (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1997)Google Scholar for a general overview of how Arabic linguistics developed in medieval times.

²³ Ferguson, Charles, “Diglossia,” in Language Structure and Language Use: Essays by Charles Ferguson,Google Scholar selected and introduced by Dil, Anwar, (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1971 [1959]), pp. 1–26Google Scholar. See also Badawi, El-Said, Mustawayat al- arabiya ai-Mu ‘asira, Levels of Contemporary Arabic. (Cairo: Dar al-Ma‘arif, 1973).Google Scholar

²⁴ Koch, P. and Oesterreicher, W., “Schriftlichkeit und SpracheGoogle Scholar,” in Günther, H. and Ludwig, O. (eds.), Schrift und Schriftlichkeit. Writing and its Use. Ein interdisziplinäres Handbuch internationaler Forchung. An Interdisciplinary Handbook of International Research (Berlin: De Gruyter, 1994), pp. 587–604Google Scholar. See also O’Connell, Daniel C. and Kowal, Sabine, “Orality and Literacy in Public Discourse: An Interview of Hannah Arendt,” Journal of Pragmatics, 30 (1998), pp. 543–564;Google Scholar and Ferguson, Charles, “Diglossia,” and “Diglossia revisited,” The Southwest Journal of Linguistics, vol. 10, no. 1 (1991), pp. 214–233.Google Scholar

²⁵ See for example Holes, Clive, Modern Arabic: Structures, Functions and Variations (Washington D.C.: Georgetown University Press, 2004).Google Scholar

²⁶ Bakhtin, Mikhail, “The Problem with Speech Genres,” in Jaworski, Adam and Coupland, Nikolas (eds.), The Discourse Reader (London and New York: Routledge, 1999), p. 132.Google Scholar

²⁷ Ibid, p. 121.

²⁸ One search on ‘You Tube’ of the young poet Tamim Barghouti shows more than 400,000 hits for one of his poems. This reaches far more people than most Arabic newspaper circulations.

²⁹ Taylor, Talbot, Theorizing Language: Analysis, Normativity, Rhetoric, History (Amsterdam: Pergamon, 1997), pp. 59–60, as cited in Linell, Per, The Written Language Bias in Linguistics: Its Nature, Origins and Transformation, p. 30.Google Scholar

³⁰ Ibid.

³¹ See Haeri, Niloofar, Sacred Language, Ordinary People (New York: Palgrave, Macmillan, 2003)Google Scholar, though Haeri remains essentialist in her characterization of Cairene Arabic.