Concentrations of DIBOA [2,4-dihydroxy-1,4-(2H)-benzoxazine-3-one] and BOA [2-(3H)-benzoxazolinone], described previously as major allelochemicals in Secale cereale (rye), were determined in eight field-grown cultivars, harvested at booting, using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Allelochemicals were also quantified in greenhouse-grown cultivar ‘Bates’ harvested 30, 45, 60, and 75 days after planting (DAP). The total production of DIBOA and BOA from field-grown S. cereale ranged from 137 to 1,469 μg g−1 dry tissue among the eight cultivars. ‘Bonel’ cultivar had the highest hydroxamic acid (HA) content and ‘Pastar’ the lowest. Bonel also showed the highest activity on Eleusine indica (goosegrass) and Pastar the least, in culture plate bioassays using aqueous extracts. HA content in shoot tissue varied with S. cereale maturity. The greatest level of HA in greenhouse-grown Bates was obtained 60 DAP compared to 30 DAP.

A Bromus tectorum L. (downy brome) biotype with cross-resistance to sulfosulfuron has been identified. The resistant biotype was selected with primisulfuron in Poa pratensis L. (Kentucky bluegrass) plots near Madras, OR. The plots received two treatments of 20 g ai ha−1 primisulfuron in the fall of 1993, 1994, and 1995. In 1995, control of B. tectorum decreased and greenhouse studies confirmed that the biotype was resistant to primisulfuron. Cross-resistance to sulfosulfuron also was confirmed in greenhouse studies. Metabolism of sulfosulfuron rather than an insensitive site of action is the likely cause of the cross-resistance.

Broomrapes are parasitic angiosperms that live on the roots of many important crop plants. We have conducted a series of in vitro experiments to investigate the direct effects of nitrogen fertilizers on broomrape seed germination and early development. These experiments confirm that nitrogen in the ammonium form is more inhibitory than nitrate, but we conclude that it is the elongation of the seedling radicle that is primarily inhibited by ammonium, rather than the seed germination itself. Reductions in radicle length were observed when ammonium solutions were applied during either preconditioning or germination periods. For germinating seeds, exposures to ammonium sulfate of 4 to 8 h (depending on the species) reduced radicle elongation by half, indicating a relatively rapid inhibition. Broomrape species varied in sensitivity to ammonium, with Orobanche aegyptiaca being the most tolerant, followed by O. crenata, O. ramosa, O. cernua, and finally O. minor as compared in the presence of 5 mM ammonium. However, all broomrape species were much more sensitive to ammonium toxicity than were host crop species under similar treatment conditions.

The influence of the experimental herbicide safener BAS-145–138 on the toxicity of imazaquin and metsulfuron-methyl was investigated in two corn varieties in growth chamber bioassays. BAS-145–138 alone slightly decreased root and shoot growth but this decrease was not dependent on the safener concentration. The imbibition of seeds of both corn varieties with low levels of safener caused substantially less damage in the roots and shoots especially with the highest metsulfuron-methyl doses used in the study. In one variety, the safener significantly increased corn root tolerance to imazaquin and to metsulfuron-methyl 1.5- and 2.3-fold, respectively; the concentrations of both herbicides producing 50% inhibition were higher for safened seedlings. In the other variety, a high antidotal influence of BAS-145–138 imbibition on metsulfuron-methyl was observed in shoot growth.

Greenhouse and laboratory experiments were conducted to determine the physiological basis for differential tolerance of four Zea mays L. hybrids to RPA 201772. Differences in Zea mays tolerance were quantified by determining the herbicide rate required to injure and reduce Z. mays height 50% (GR50). GR50 values indicated that the Z. mays hybrids ‘Pioneer 3751’ and ‘Pioneer 3737’ were less tolerant to RPA 201772 than the hybrids ‘Pioneer 3394’ and ‘Pioneer 3963.’ Experiments using 14C-RPA 201772 were conducted to determine if hybrid sensitivity was due to differential uptake, translocation, or metabolism of the herbicide. Differences in hybrid tolerance were primarily due to differential herbicide metabolism rates. The time required for 50% inactivation (T½) of RPA 201772 was 42 and 52 h for the more tolerant hybrids and 66 and 93 h for the more sensitive hybrids. Increased uptake of RPA 201772 was also a contributing factor to the sensitivity of one of the hybrids.

Soil carryover of the herbicide trifluralin can injure Zea mays. Therefore, the development of resistant hybrids can be an important breeding objective. This research was conducted to study the genetic variability for trifluralin resistance in Z. mays, the effects of genes controlling resistance, and the seed lipid content of resistant (R) and susceptible (S) inbreds. Twenty inbreds were tested under greenhouse conditions at three trifluralin rates (0, 12.5, and 125 g ai ha−1). Lo1067 was the most resistant, and A632 was the most susceptible inbred. Hybrids among R and S inbreds were tested, along with their parents, under greenhouse conditions (using the same three rates) and in the field (at 0, 0.4, and 0.8 kg ai ha−1). Under both greenhouse and field conditions, inbreds R were more resistant than S. Hybrids R × R were more resistant than S × S, indicating that additive effects were important. Hybrids R × S and S × R did not significantly differ, indicating that reciprocal effects were not important. On average, hybrids R × S and S × R were intermediate between R × R and S × S, suggesting that nonadditive effects were negligible. The difference between the mean across hybrids and the mean across parents (further estimating the importance of nonadditive effects) was significant only for parameters investigated in the greenhouse. Greenhouse data were correlated with field data, but the coefficients of determination were < 50%. The ability to predict hybrid resistance on the basis of parental mean was higher in the greenhouse (r2 = 0.78) than in the field (r2 = 0.47). R and S inbreds also differed in seed lipid content, but correlations were negligible with greenhouse and field data. Data indicated the presence of genetic variability for trifluralin resistance, that additive effects were prevailing, and that the resistance level was not related to seed lipid content.

The effect of the organophosphate insecticide malathion on the response of resistant rigid ryegrass population SLR 31 to the herbicides trifluralin, pendimethalin, clomazone, and triallate was investigated. The insecticide and herbicides were soil-applied prior to emergence of plants grown under controlled conditions. In the absence of malathion, the resistant population exhibited significant resistance to the four herbicides compared with a susceptible population. Levels of resistance, as determined by comparison of herbicide rates required to inhibit growth by 50%, were 35, 11, 2.4, and 2.4 for pendimethalin, trifluralin, triallate, and clomazone, respectively. Malathion had a synergistic effect on pendimethalin in the resistant population but not in the susceptible population. Malathion had no synergistic effect on trifluralin, triallate and clomazone. Resistance to triallate and clomazone was found despite the fact that the resistant population had never before been selected with these herbicides. This resistance, selected by other herbicides, further indicates that the use of alternative herbicides to control multiple resistant weeds is unlikely to be a successful resistance management approach.

Broadleaf signalgrass is sensitive to nicosulfuron and resistant to primisulfuron, but corn is resistant to both. Research was conducted to determine the effect of varying light level and air temperature on absorption, translocation, and metabolism of nicosulfuron and primisulfuron in broadleaf signalgrass and corn. Corn absorbed between 60 and 85% of the applied nicosulfuron and primisulfuron within 72 h after treatment (HAT), depending on environmental treatment. Absorption, translocation, and metabolism all tended to be more rapid at higher temperature and light intensity. Nicosulfuron and primisulfuron translocation out of the treated leaf was < 4.5% of herbicide absorbed through 72 HAT. Corn rapidly metabolized both herbicides in both environments. However, primisulfuron was metabolized more rapidly (high = 99%, low = 92%) than nicosulfuron (high = 95%, low = 78%). Broadleaf signalgrass absorbed 20% more nicosulfuron than primisulfuron through 72 HAT. Nicosulfuron translocation out of the treated leaf in broadleaf signalgrass was ≤ 15% absorbed through 72 HAT, while primisulfuron translocation was ≤ 4% during the same time period. Primisulfuron metabolism was more rapid than nicosulfuron in broadleaf signalgrass. During the first 4 HAT, broadleaf signalgrass metabolized > 20 times more primisulfuron than nicosulfuron. By 72 HAT, broadleaf signalgrass under conditions of high light and temperature had metabolized nearly 90% of the primisulfuron absorbed but ≤ 7% of the nicosulfuron absorbed was metabolized during the same time. These results suggest that differential activity of nicosulfuron and primisulfuron on broadleaf signalgrass may be based on differential rates of metabolism to nonphytotoxic compounds; uptake and translocation differences agree with the differential broadleaf signalgrass activity. Additionally, environment has the potential to affect rates of sulfonylurea absorption, translocation, and metabolism.

Field studies were conducted in 1996 and 1997 to determine the effects of RP-201772 and RP-201772 tank mixtures applied to emerged Zea mays. RP-201772 at 105 g ha−1 and tank-mixed metolachlor/benoxacor or atrazine were applied preemergence and to spike, 2-leaf, and 4-leaf Z. mays. Herbicide treatments over the four application timings provided greater than 90% Chenopodium album, Ambrosia artemisiifolia, Amaranthus retroflexus, and Abutilon theophrasti control. However, Setaria faberi control varied among years and application timings. Severe Z. mays injury, 70% and 40%, was observed when RP-201772 tank-mixed with metolachlor/benoxacor was applied to 2-leaf and 4-leaf Z. mays, respectively. Greenhouse studies confirmed Z. mays sensitivity from delayed applications of RP-201772 tank-mixed with metolachlor/benoxacor. Similarly, increased Z. mays injury was observed from postemergence applications of RP-201772 tank-mixed with acetochlor/MON-13900. Herbicide absorption, translocation, metabolism, and retention studies were conducted to determine the physiological basis for the observed Z. mays injury from delayed applications of the RP-201772 tank mixture with metolachlor/benoxacor. Metolachlor/benoxacor increased radiolabeled RP-201772 absorption when applied to spike, 2-leaf, and 4-leaf Z. mays. RP-201772 translocation and metabolism did not explain enhanced Z. mays injury. However, RP-201772 retention increased fivefold when metolachlor/benoxacor was present in the spray solution and applied to 2-leaf and 4-leaf Z. mays. Increased RP-201772 absorption and retention appeared to be the basis for Z. mays injury when tank-mixed with metolachlor/benoxacor and applied to emerged Z. mays.

Use of glyphosate in controlling Orobanche aegyptiaca (broomrape), a parasitic weed on dicotyledonous crops, was examined by determining glyphosate dose response and 14C-labeled glyphosate absorption, translocation, and metabolism patterns in Vicia sativa (common vetch) that is tolerant of low levels of glyphosate and Brassica napus (oilseed rape) that has been genetically engineered to be glyphosate resistant. Glyphosate provided excellent suppression of O. aegyptiaca growth in both V. sativa and B. napus. Absorption and translocation of 14C-glyphosate was similar between parasitized and nonparasitized V. sativa plants. 14C-Glyphosate was metabolized up to 32% in V. sativa, which could account for some of the tolerance of V. sativa to glyphosate. Approximately 27% of translocated 14C-glyphosate accumulated in O. aegyptiaca attachments on V. sativa. Absorption and translocation patterns of 14C-glyphosate were similar between parasitized and nonparasitized B. napus plants. Nearly one-third (31%) of the translocated radioactivity was found in O. aegyptiaca attachments on B. napus. No metabolism of 14C-glyphosate was detected in B. napus.

Laboratory and greenhouse experiments were conducted to examine the absorption and fate of quinclorac in field bindweed and to assess the importance of quinclorac soil activity for field bindweed control. No foliar absorption of 14C-quinclorac occurred when applied alone, but absorption increased to 24% when quinclorac was applied with 2,4-D, 28% urea ammonium nitrate (UAN), and methylated seed oil (MSO). Quinclorac translocation in field bindweed was limited, as < 18% of the total amount of absorbed radiolabeled material translocated out of the treated leaves 168 hours after treatment (HAT). Quinclorac metabolism in the treated leaves was minimal; 95% of the recovered 14C was intact herbicide 168 HAT. Quinclorac soil activity on field bindweed was demonstrated in preemergence and soil subsurface applications. Preemergence application of 35, 70, 140, or 280 g ha−-1 quinclorac reduced field bindweed shoot growth. Field bindweed shoots exhibited auxinic herbicide symptoms at all quinclorac rates. Subsurface layering of quinclorac below the root system at rates of 35 and 280 g ha−-1 also reduced shoot and root growth. Both herbicide rates induced malformation in root structure with a proliferation of lateral branching, swollen and fused root tips, and malformed root buds. Shoot growth from surviving roots replanted in untreated media was also reduced in both herbicide treatments. These findings suggest quinclorac soil activity may be important for field bindweed control.

Absorption, translocation, and metabolism of 14C-glufosinate were studied in three annual and two perennial weed species. Young seedlings of Setaria faberi, Chenopodium album, Cassia obtusifolia, Solanum carolinense, and Asclepias syriaca were treated with foliar-applied 14C-glufosinate, and plant tissues were harvested 12, 48, and 72 h after treatment (HAT). Absorption of 14C-glufosinate was initially rapid, but increased only slightly after 12 h in all species. Glufosinate absorption was highest in S. carolinense (73% of applied radioactivity), followed by S. faberi (54%), C. obtusifolia (44%), C. album (41%), and A. syriaca (37%) 72 HAT. Translocation of radioactivity out of the treated leaf was species dependent and did not increase much with time in all weed species. S. carolinense and S. faberi translocated the highest amounts of absorbed radioactivity out of the treated leaf with 49 to 59% moving to the upper foliage. S. faberi translocated the highest amount of absorbed radioactivity to the roots (12 to 14%), while C. album translocated the least (2 to 3%). TLC analysis of plant extracts showed that 14C-glufosinate was not metabolized in S. faberi, C. obtusifolia, S. carolinense, and A. syriaca. A glufosinate metabolite with an Rf value matching that of methyl-phosphinico propionate was detected in C. album. Treatment with ammonium sulfate (AMS) increased glufosinate absorption in S. faberi and C. obtusifolia 12 HAT, but decreased absorption in C. album. Treatment with pelargonic acid (PA) did not affect glufosinate absorption in any of the species tested. Treatment with AMS and PA did not affect glufosinate translocation in any of the five weed species. Treatment with AMS and PA did not influence the metabolism of glufosinate in any of the five weed species studied. These results show that differential absorption and translocation seem to explain the greater sensitivity of the annual and perennial weeds to glufosinate. Treatment with ammonium sulfate may increase the efficacy of glufosinate in perennial weeds.

Resistance to propanil by a barnyardgrass (BYG) biotype has been reported, and its occurrence is becoming widespread in U.S. rice-producing regions. Interactions between propanil and the herbicides anilofos, molinate, pendimethalin, piperophos, quinclorac, and thiobencarb and the insecticide carbaryl were evaluated in laboratory studies for improved control of propanil-resistant barnyardgrass (R-BYG). Chlorophyll fluorescence measurements of BYG leaf segments were used to ascertain electron transport inhibition and to assess the synergy/antagonism of propanil (100 μM) with the various additives (50 μM). Synergistic effects on photosynthetic inhibition were found with anilofos, carbaryl, pendimethalin, and piperophos in combination with propanil. Such synergistic actions of chemicals with propanil may lead to chemical combinations useful for R-BYG control.

Biochemical and physiological effects of target site resistance to herbicides inhibiting acetolactate synthase (ALS) were evaluated using sulfonylurea-resistant (R) and -susceptible (S) near isonuclear Lactuca sativa ‘Bibb’ lines derived by backcrossing the resistance allele from Lactuca serriola L. into L. sativa. Sequence data suggest that resistance in L. sativa is conferred by a single-point mutation that encodes a proline197 to histidine substitution in Domain A of the ALS protein; this is the same substitution observed in R L. serriola. Kmapp (pyruvate) values for ALS isolated from R and S L. sativa were 7.3 and 11.1 mM, respectively, suggesting that the resistance allele did not alter the pyruvate binding domain on the ALS enzyme. Both R and S ALS had greater affinity for 2-oxobutyrate than for pyruvate at the second substrate site. Ratios of acetohydroxybutyrate: acetolactate produced by R ALS across a range of 2-oxobutyrate concentrations were similar to acetohydroxybutyrate: acetolactate ratios produced by S ALS. Specific activity of ALS from R L. sativa was 46% of the specific activity from S L. sativa, suggesting that the resistance allele has detrimental effects on enzyme function, expression, or stability. ALS activity from R plants was less sensitive to feedback inhibition by valine, leucine, and isoleucine than ALS from S plants. Valine, leucine, and isoleucine concentrations were about 1.5 times higher in R seed than in S seed on a per gram of seed basis, and concentrations of valine and leucine were 1.3 and 1.6 times higher, respectively, in R leaves than in S leaves. Findings suggest that the mutation for resistance results in altered regulation of branched-chain amino acid synthesis.