The Japanese constitution of 1889 is not, as is frequently assumed, chiefly the product of the labors of Hirobumi Ito and his secretaries who, in 1882–1883, studied constitutional systems in Europe preparatory to drafting the text of the fundamental law which the Emperor had promised in the celebrated rescript of 1881. Discussion of constitutional progress had begun as far back as 1867 and, immediately following the restoration, Meiji statesmen began the task of drafting projects of a constitution. Okubo, Goto, Kido, and Itagaki played leading rôles in urging the adoption of a national charter, and when Okubo and Kido relaxed their efforts, Itagaki initiated a popular campaign. Finally, in 1876, a formal commission of the Genro-in (Senate) was appointed to draft a constitution, while in 1880, its completed project was laid before the Emperor. This draft proposed a form of government having many features of the British parliamentary system.

The system of government set up under the Irish constitution of 1922 was of the parliamentary type. Provision was made for an Executive Council, some members of which were responsible to Dáil Eireann. The actual working executive was the president of the Executive Council. The old constitution also contemplated a group of expert ministers who should be heads of departments, but who should not share in the collective responsibility of the Executive Council to the Dáil. The appointment of such a group of “extern” ministers was not made mandatory. In the first Dáil, three extern ministers were appointed, and in the second Dáil a fourth was added. This constitutional arrangement, the inspiration for which was derived from the Swiss executive, did not last long. The extern ministers were, as a matter of fact, active politicians; they were not appointed on the basis of merit in heading the specific departments; in 1927, an amendment was adopted which practically abolished extern ministries; and the Free State has since proceeded on the general plan of a cabinet collectively responsible to the Dáil.

In an atmosphere of profound awe of the unprecedented popularity of Franklin D. Roosevelt, the members of the Seventy-fifth Congress convened, on January 5, 1937, for their first session. Many legislators were keenly conscious that their presence in Washington was due largely to that inspired political leadership which had produced tremendous Democratic majorities throughout the nation. With the surviving remnant of opposition benumbed and quiescent, the view was prevalent that the patriotic duty of Congress would be “to have the courage of the President's convictions.”

The increasing use of the government corporation in the conduct of governmental business enterprises is one of the most significant of recent trends in public administration. Indeed, the corporate device represents one answer to the charge that government is so poorly organized and so beset by red tape that public operation of economic enterprise is inevitably sluggish and inefficient. Most notably during the mobilization crisis of 1917 and the depression years following 1929, when speedy and vigorous action was needed, the federal government has relied heavily upon government corporations which could cut through red tape and “get things done.” Also in more normal times, however, particular enterprises somewhat isolated from regular governmental activities have been carried on in corporate form.

Origin. The Rural Electrification Administration began as one of the “temporary” and “emergency” units in Roosevelt's collection of alphabetical agencies under executive order 7037 of May 11, 1935. The expressed purpose of the President was to promote the generation, transmission, and distribution of electricity in rural areas. Morris L. Cooke, noted management engineer who had served as a member of the Power Authority of New York when Roosevelt was governor, was chosen administrator. Money for loans to coöperatives, public bodies, and private companies was made available from relief funds, with the stipulation that borrowers must use at least 90 per cent relief labor in construction work. All money was to be repaid; no part of the federal funds was to be used for grants or subsidies.

On August 12, President Roosevelt nominated Senator Hugo L. Black of Alabama to be an Associate Justice of the United States Supreme Court. On receipt of the message, Senator Ashurst moved for its immediate consideration on the ground that “whenever the Executive honors this body by nominating a member thereof, that nomination is confirmed without reference to a committee, for the obvious reason that no amount of investigation or consideration by a committee of the Senate could disclose any new fact or shed any new light upon the character, attainments, and ability of the nominee, because if we do not know him after long service with him, no one will ever know him.”

As a means of settling labor disputes, strikes benefit no element in the community. Their financial costs to workers, industry, capital, consumers, government, and society cannot be accurately totaled but may be amply demonstrated. Strikes are costly not only in terms of money, but also because they prejudice just and intelligent solutions of the essential issues of wages, working conditions, and industrial control. Solutions which are compelled by violence or coercion are adequate only by unlikely coincidence.

Housing has at last come into its own. Not housing for its own sake, but housing as a means of “increasing employment quickly,” was the avowed purpose of the housing provisions of the three acts under which the national government's low-rental housing program has to date been carried forward.

Municipal officials in 40 states are today coöperating with one another through leagues of municipalities to provide means whereby they may bring the needs of the urban population to the attention of their state legislators and inform themselves as to most efficient practice in the field of public business. These leagues include some 7,000 municipalities as league members, and many more are using league services. The first league was organized 46 years ago, the fortieth in February, 1937. The degree of service, of course, varies as between leagues, owing to differences in strength and financial ability. A few have little more than an annual meeting and limited legislative work. Most leagues, however, carry on a wide range of services such as training schools for city employees, complete information exchange, legislative counsel, monthly magazine, radio programs, legal services, regional meetings, and an annual convention of several days' duration.