Hostname: page-component-848d4c4894-ttngx Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-06-01T05:18:59.353Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Focus on rural adolescent cannabis use and abuse: ignored epidemiologic trends, unique risks, long-term concerns, and hope

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  07 April 2022

Mayank Gupta Open the ORCID record for Mayank Gupta [Opens in a new window]  and
Theodore Petti
Mayank Gupta*
Affiliation:
Clarion Psychiatric Center, Clarion, PA, USA
Theodore Petti
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry, Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Rutgers University, Piscataway, NJ, USA
*
* Author for correspondence: Mayank Gupta, MD Email: mayank6nov@gmail.com
Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Cannabis-related issues for adolescents and young adults are emerging from the shadow of rural opioid addiction and deaths. The rural pediatric population has multiple risk factors putting them at increased risk for adverse consequences with the expansion of cannabis legalization across the United States. Research in this area is rich but scattered across professional disciplines. Differences in demographics and cultures between rural and urban youth are gaining attention. Epidemiological factors relevant to rurality as a risk for cannabis and other substance use are considered for formulating clinical care, public policymakers, and future research. Race, culture, community stability, basic demographics of age, gender, educational status, and demands for more and better, accessible services for rural, nonmetropolitan areas comprise factors for consideration and are detailed. Research findings provide direction for policymakers and clinicians for prevention and intervention efforts to improve care for rural populations, validating and expanding upon insights gained to date.

Type
Editorial
Information
CNS Spectrums , Volume 28 , Issue 3 , June 2023 , pp. 277 - 280
Copyright
© The Author(s), 2022. Published by Cambridge University Press

Introduction

Clinical issues amidst stark state-level legalizations regulating cannabis variationsReference Klieger, Gutman, Allen, Pacula, Ibrahim and Burris 1 have emerged in the rural United States. Rural by Census Bureau definition encompasses all territory, population, and housing, not included within an urban area.Reference Ratcliffe, Burd, Holder and Fields 2 Quality information depicting rural/nonmetropolitan epidemiology, specific risk factors, and effectiveness of treatments is sparse, scattered, and missing. Adolescent substance use disorders (SUD), as with other mental disorders, starts in early adolescenceReference Gray and Squeglia 3 with a significant rural, urban, and racial divide.Reference Barton, Gene and Zapolski 4 , Reference Buckner, Zvolensky, Crosby, Wonderlich, Ecker and Richter 5 All are heavily influenced by multiple interacting variables including gender, age, delinquent behaviors, depressive symptoms, personal values and beliefs, attachment to school, and views of potential harm.Reference Connell, Gilreath, Aklin and Brex 6 Opiate abuse in rural areas is tied to distinct structural factors, including higher rates of opioid prescription, youth outmigration, larger kinship networks that facilitate informal drug trafficking, and economic stress.Reference Keyes, Cerdá, Brady, Havens and Galea 7 Similar or overlapping risk factors influence youth tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) use. A national survey of adults found the subsequent prescription opioid misuse and opioid use disorder was increased among people reporting prior THC use in the last 5 years.Reference Olfson, Wall, Liu and Blanco 8

Expanding cannabis legalization across the world and individual states has significant consequences to threaten public health in the context of no cannabinoid product approved for psychiatric indication.Reference Petti and Chatlos 9 - Reference Hinckley and Hopner 11 Given the current lack of federal involvement, responsibility for public safety falls on those legalizing states, which include regulation recommendations for monitoring the process from the plant growth through production, promotion, distribution, and accessibility.Reference Elliott and Adinoff 12 Rural jurisdictions are the least able to implement or enforce whatever regulations if any that do get passed.

Scope of the problem and epidemiological trends in rural areas

About 43% of children and adolescents (CA) receiving mental health treatment have cooccurring SUD. 13 Cannabinoid receptors and endocannabinoid system (ECS) discoveries underscore quantifiable risks of THC in adolescents and fertile young adults given its deleterious impact on fetal, CA, and emerging adults.Reference John and Theodore 14 , Reference Fischer, Daldegan-Bueno and Reuter 15 Race may also contribute to risk. An elevated cognitive variable, anxiety sensitivity-physical concern factor, appears to position African American youth (AAY) to be at higher and heavier risk for more frequent use.Reference Dean, Ecker and Buckner 16 Greater THC AAY use rate fluctuationsReference Barton, Gene and Zapolski 4 are reported between ages 16-19 than in early adults ages 19-25 years. The finding that 40% of AAY males continue regular cannabis use after the age of 24 years, maybe secondary to factors that promote maturation out of substance use is less likely to be experienced by AAY in late adolescence and young adulthood.Reference Finlay, White, Mun, Cronley and Lee 17

AAY were more likely late-onset regular THC users and the regular use patterns between races were similar until ages 23 and 24, when AAY were more likely to regularly use THC, thus not fitting the expected pattern of maturing out of substance use in their early 20s.Reference Finlay, White, Mun, Cronley and Lee 17 Moreover, AAY lives within social arrangements with restricted access to social or political resources that lead to a socially disadvantaged population characterized by high rates of crime and deviance, alcohol-outlet density, and community instability with a turnover of renters.Reference Lo, Weber and Cheng 18

A cross-sectional survey reported that parental use increases risk among offspring living in the same household.Reference Madras, Han, Compton, Jones, Lopez and McCance-Katz 19 The risk of use increases exponentially from 1.7 to 7.1 times if both parents are THC users when compared with nonusers.Reference O’Loughlin, Dugas and O’Loughlin 20 Parental SUD (2018) was a factor in 36% of cases that led to removing children from the home, while parental alcoholism factored in 5%. Of the 62% referrals of children referred for neglect, many were considered related to undocumented parental substance use.Reference Jones, Schulte and Waite 21 Likewise, rural parents tend to be less emotionally supportive, more intrusive, and harsher than urban parents and the bar for academic excellence is low.Reference Connell, Gilreath, Aklin and Brex 6 , Reference Li and Qiu 22

Moreover, the teen birth rate in rural areas is nearly one-third higher than in the rest of the United States. 23 The prevalence among pregnant female THC use, particularly for adolescents and emerging adults continues to rise. These trends are evident by toxicology results showing greater numbers than what is self-reported.Reference Metz and Stickrath 24 Equally alarming is its use for the treatment of morning sickness under perception as a harmless drug.Reference Dickson, Mansfield and Guiahi 25 Critically, THC transfers into breast milk and poses risks to breast-fed infants and their developing brain being shaped by THC exposure.Reference Baker, Datta, Rewers-Felkins, Thompson, Kallem and Hale 26

High THC accessibility is endemic to economically stressed areas due to lowered cost and lowered risk perception.Reference Rhew, Hawkins and Oesterle 27 Perceived elevated lack of distinction between THC and medicinal cannabinoids is likely due to poor health literacy and poor access to health care.Reference Madras, Han, Compton, Jones, Lopez and McCance-Katz 19 Child poverty is rampant and attributed to parental unemployment, low rates of higher education, and single-mother families.Reference Mattingly, Johnson and Schaefer 28 Rural youths are also more likely to engage in risky behaviors, including driving under the influence of THC.Reference Lambert, Gale and Hartley 29 Rural economic stress and increased school dropouts could be representative of those young adults who are not in college or other training programs. THC use remains at an all-time high of 43% for both colleges going and nonattending young adults.Reference Johnston, Miech, O’Malley, Bachman, Schulenberg and Patrick 30 A recurrent finding is that current and lifetime cannabis and other illicit substances are used, earlier more frequently by rural adolescent youth than urban youth transnationally.Reference Coomber, Toumbourou, Miller, Staiger, Hemphill and Catalano 31

Protective factors to prevent cannabis initiation and continued use include the constructive presence and functioning of schools in fostering positive personal and community development and mitigating harmful risk factors.Reference Lo, Weber and Cheng 18 School’s constructive engagement was associated with reduced student substance use in school catchment areas (SCAs).Reference Lo, Weber and Cheng 18 Predictive protective individual characteristics include gender, perceived harm from use, academic performance, and antisocial behavior. Predictive family characteristics are parental disapproval of youth use and parental drinking.Reference Connell, Gilreath, Aklin and Brex 6 Perceived peer substance use is a robust risk factor for rural adolescent substance use, while perceived peer disapproval is a potential proximal influence to inhibit substance use.Reference Connell, Gilreath, Aklin and Brex 6

Discussion

Public health campaigns, highly effective in reducing illicit substances, had short-lived success regarding THC.Reference Petti and Chatlos 9 Mixed evidence characterizes the impact of educational/behavioral interventions in reducing population-level harms through promulgating preventive guidelines. Higher-risk use behaviors persist or increase with sociocultural “normalization” of use and expanding availability and marketing of cannabis at the population level.Reference Fischer, Daldegan-Bueno and Reuter 15 Data indicates community and school collaboration, even in structurally disadvantaged SCA are critical to protect adolescents against and reduce substance use by mobilizing students in prosocial activities. The protected students may foster prosocial behavior to benefit students at that and neighboring schoolsReference Lo, Weber and Cheng 18 and benefit from directed programs.Reference Connell, Gilreath, Aklin and Brex 6 Race must be considered in clinical and policy decisions, and future research in rural, nonmetropolitan efforts.Reference Hill, Gold and Nemeroff 10 , Reference Dean, Ecker and Buckner 16 , Reference Finlay, White, Mun, Cronley and Lee 17 The absence of evidence-based services in rural settings leads to higher, more extreme substance useReference Clary, Ribar and Weigensberg 32 and is further compounded by untreated cooccurring disorders.Reference Edmond, Aletraris and Roman 33 Workforce shortage, lack of familycentric wraparound care, and reliable transportation for appointments remain critical in crisis perpetuation.Reference Pullen and Oser 34

Screening, brief intervention, and referral to treatment (SBIRT) is the gold standard approach to address the risks and effectively treat these conditions.Reference Nunes, Richmond, Marzano, Swenson and Lockhart 35 - Reference Calomarde-Gómez, Jiménez-Fernández, Balcells-Oliveró, Gual and López-Pelayo 40 Similarly addressing fixed beliefs, issues around health care literacy, treatment of cooccurring disorders,Reference Wilens, Martelon and Joshi 41 maintaining confidentiality,Reference Weddle and Kokotailo 42 and enhancing services access is critical. Countering misinformation that THC is “natural,” medically useful, and less harmful than other drugsReference Bostwick 43 must be emphasized with national efforts.Reference Petti and Chatlos 9 , Reference Miceh 44

Rural mental health providers need high-speed broadband internet for compliance with 42 CFR Part 2 and Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996 (HIPAA) for telepsychiatry access.Reference Browne, Priester, Clone, Iachini, DeHart and Hock 45 Post legalization, many approaches to address emerging norms around cannabis use are developing.Reference Fischer, Daldegan-Bueno and Reuter 15 Obstetricians, primary care physicians, and mental health clinicians caring for pregnancy-age women are inquiring specifically about the frequency of cannabis use since it is often denied on self-report forms and in interviews.Reference Young-Wolff, Sarovar and Tucker 46 Scientifically informed media campaigns must target adolescent marijuana use and specifically pregnant women.Reference Miech 47 This range of approaches requires conceptual linkage and reinforcement by targeted interventive efforts and programs on specific, relevant risk factors. Differentiated and specifically tailored communication is required for different target audiences.Reference Fischer, Daldegan-Bueno and Reuter 15 , Reference Andraka-Christou, Alex and Lyneé Madeira 48 , Reference Wotring, Paprzycki and Wagner-Green 49

Students’ preferences must be respected regarding educational online and media about SUDs and SUD treatments’ content, format, and style, including information regarding medication-assisted treatment efficacy, less about cannabis adverse effects, and opposition to any format interpretable as fearmongering. For college and noncollege young adults, intention to change or use is critical to influencing the intended audience, for example, primary prevention approaches to never users or those wishing to cease use contrasted to secondary prevention measures that emphasize harm reduction strategies to minimize risk for those planning to continue cannabis use (see Table 1).Reference Andraka-Christou, Alex and Lyneé Madeira 48 , Reference Wotring, Paprzycki and Wagner-Green 49

Table 1. Evidence-Based Strategies for Cannabis Crisis in Rural America

Abbreviations: BSFT, brief strategic family therapy; ECS, endocannabinoid system; MDFT, multidimensional family therapy; MST, multisystemic Therapy; SBIRT, screening, brief intervention, and referral to treatment; THC, tetrahydrocannabinol.

Other available avenues comprising evidence-based telehealth, build on advances instituted during the pandemic 52 and school-based programsReference Westbrook, Martinez, Mechergui and Yeatman 53 bypass multiple barriers to prevention and early interventionReference Schueller, Hunter, Figueroa and Aguilera 51 within a broader research context.Reference Duran and Pérez-Stable 54 More attention must be given to strengthening family systems and schools to counter the influence of media, cannabis-using friends, and cognitive and social factors that predispose them toward use.Reference Connell, Gilreath, Aklin and Brex 6 , Reference Lo, Weber and Cheng 18 , Reference Crouch, Radcliff, Probst, Bennett and McKinney 55 Finally, national multimedia, concerted, coordinated, and comprehensive public health announcements must deal with presenting a balanced, objective, evidence-based series of public health announcements and programs to present the facts, counter the misinformation that is currently available about cannabis, and its use, and assess the results.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization: M.G., T.P.; Data curation: M.G., T.P.; Formal analysis: M.G., T.P.; Writing—original draft: M.G., T.P.; Writing—review and editing: M.G., T.P.

Disclosures

The authors declare that no competing financial interests exist.

References

Klieger, SB, Gutman, A, Allen, L, Pacula, RL, Ibrahim, JK, Burris, S. Mapping medical marijuana: state laws regulating patients, product safety, supply chains and dispensaries, 2017. Addiction. 2017;112(12):2206–2216. doi:10.1111/add.13910.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ratcliffe, M, Burd, C, Holder, K, Fields, A. Defining Rural at the U.S. Census Bureau; 2020.Google Scholar
Gray, KM, Squeglia, LM. Research review: what have we learned about adolescent substance use? J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2018;59(6):618–627. doi:10.1111/jcpp.12783.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barton, AW, Gene, HB, Zapolski, TCB, et al. Trajectory classes of cannabis use and heavy drinking among rural African American adolescents: multilevel predictors of class membership. Addiction. 2018;113(8):1439–1449. doi:10.1111/add.14200.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Buckner, JD, Zvolensky, MJ, Crosby, RD, Wonderlich, SA, Ecker, AH, Richter, A. Antecedents and consequences of cannabis use among racially diverse cannabis users: an analysis from ecological momentary assessment. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2015;147:20–25. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2014.12.022.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Connell, CM, Gilreath, TD, Aklin, WM, Brex, RA. Social-ecological influences on patterns of substance use among non-metropolitan high school students. Am J Community Psychol. 2010;45(1–2):36–48. doi:10.1007/s10464-009-9289-x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Keyes, KM, Cerdá, M, Brady, JE, Havens, JR, Galea, S. Understanding the rural–urban differences in nonmedical prescription opioid use and abuse in the United States. Am J Public Health. 2014;104(2):e52–e59. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2013.301709.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Olfson, M, Wall, MM, Liu, SM, Blanco, C. Cannabis use and risk of prescription opioid use disorder in the United States. Am J Psychiatry. 2018;175(1):47–53. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2017.17040413.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Petti, TA, Chatlos, JC. Implications of cannabis legalization: a national and international perspective. Adolescent Psychiatry. 2021;11:1–15.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hill, KP, Gold, MS, Nemeroff, CB, et al. Risks and benefits of cannabis and cannabinoids in psychiatry. Am J Psychiatry. 2022;179:98–109.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hinckley, J, Hopner, C. Marijuana legalization in Colorado: increasing potency, changing risk perceptions, and emerging public health concerns. Adolesc Psychiatry. 2021.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Elliott, MD, Adinoff, B. Implications of adult-use cannabis legalization from the perspective of adolescent health. Adolesc Psychiatry. 2021 11(2). https://doi.org/10.2174/2210676611666210616125845.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Center for Mental Health Services. Mental Health Care for Youth: A National Assessment, Annual/Final Progress Report. January–December 2001. Rockville, MD: Substance Use and Mental Health Services Administration; 2001.Google Scholar
John, C, Theodore, P. The effects of cannabis with a focus on the adolescent and fetal brain. Adolesc Psychiatry. 2021;11:1–13.Google Scholar
Fischer, B, Daldegan-Bueno, D, Reuter, P. Toward a “post-legalization” criminology for cannabis: a brief review and suggested agenda for research priorities. Contemp Drug Probl. 2021;48(1):58–74. doi:10.1177/0091450920977976.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dean, KE, Ecker, AH, Buckner, JD. Anxiety sensitivity and cannabis use-related problems: the impact of race. Am J Addict. 2017;26(3):209–214. doi:10.1111/ajad.12511.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Finlay, AK, White, HR, Mun, EY, Cronley, CC, Lee, C. Racial differences in trajectories of heavy drinking and regular marijuana use from ages 13 to 24 among African-American and White males. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2012;121(1–2):118–123. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2011.08.020.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lo, CC, Weber, J, Cheng, TC. Urban-rural differentials: a spatial analysis of Alabama students’ recent alcohol use and marijuana use. Am J Addict. 2013;22(3):188–196. doi:10.1111/j.1521-0391.2012.12023.x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Madras, BK, Han, B, Compton, WM, Jones, CM, Lopez, EI, McCance-Katz, EF. Associations of parental marijuana use with offspring marijuana, tobacco, and alcohol use and opioid misuse. JAMA Network Open. 2019;2(11):e1916015 doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2019.16015.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
O’Loughlin, JL, Dugas, EN, O’Loughlin, EK, et al. Parental cannabis use is associated with cannabis initiation and use in offspring. J Pediatr. 2019;206:142–147.e1. doi:10.1016/j.jpeds.2018.10.057.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jones, VF, Schulte, EE, Waite, D, Council on Foster Care, Adoption, and Kinship Care. Pediatrician guidance in supporting families of children who are adopted, fostered, or in kinship care. Pediatrics. 2020;146(6):e2020034629. doi:10.1542/peds.2020-034629.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Li, Z, Qiu, Z. How does family background affect children’s educational achievement? Evidence from Contemporary China. J Chin Sociol. 2018;5(1):13. doi:10.1186/s40711-018-0083-8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Women’s Health Research Institute. Teen births proportionately higher in rural vs. metro areas. https://womenshealth.obgyn.msu.edu/blog/teen-births-proportionately-higher-rural-vs-metro-areas. Published March 6, 2013. Accessed November 5, 2021.Google Scholar
Metz, TD, Stickrath, EH. Is increasing frequency of marijuana use among women of reproductive age a cause for alarm? JAMA Network Open. 2019;2(7):e196464. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2019.6464.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dickson, B, Mansfield, C, Guiahi, M, et al. Recommendations from cannabis dispensaries about first-trimester cannabis use. Obstet Gynecol. 2018;131(6):1031–1038. doi:10.1097/AOG.0000000000002619.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baker, T, Datta, P, Rewers-Felkins, K, Thompson, H, Kallem, RR, Hale, TW. Transfer of inhaled cannabis into human breast milk. Obstet Gynecol. 2018;131(5):783–788. doi:10.1097/AOG.0000000000002575.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rhew, IC, Hawkins, JD, Oesterle, S. Drug use and risk among youth in different rural contexts. Health Place. 2011;17(3):775–783. doi:10.1016/j.healthplace.2011.02.003.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mattingly, M, Johnson, K, Schaefer, A. More poor kids in more poor places: children increasingly live where poverty persists. The Carsey School of Public Policy at the Scholars’ Repository. Published online October 18, 2011. doi:10.34051/p/2020.150.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lambert, D, Gale, JA, Hartley, D. Substance abuse by youth and young adults in rural America. J Rural Health. 2008;24:221–228. doi:10.1111/j.1748-0361.2008.00162.x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johnston, LD, Miech, RA, O’Malley, PM, Bachman, JG, Schulenberg, JE, Patrick, ME. Monitoring the Future National Survey Results on Drug Use, 1975–2020: Overview, Key Findings on Adolescent Drug Use. Institute for Social Research; 2021. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED611736. Accessed November 24, 2021.Google Scholar
Coomber, K, Toumbourou, JW, Miller, P, Staiger, PK, Hemphill, SA, Catalano, RF. Rural adolescent alcohol, tobacco, and illicit drug use: a comparison of students in Victoria, Australia, and Washington State, United States. J Rural Health. 2011;27(4):409–415. doi:10.1111/j.1748-0361.2010.00360.x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clary, E, Ribar, C, Weigensberg, E. Challenges in Providing Substance Use Disorder Treatment to Child Welfare Clients in Rural Communities. Office of the Assistant Secretary for Planning and Evaluation U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. https://www.mathematica.org/publications/challenges-in-providing-substance-use-disorder-treatment-to-child-welfare-clients-in-rural. Accessed November 5, 2021.Google Scholar
Edmond, MB, Aletraris, L, Roman, PM. Rural substance use treatment centers in the United States: an assessment of treatment quality by location. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse. 2015;41(5):449. doi:10.3109/00952990.2015.1059842.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pullen, E, Oser, C. Barriers to substance abuse treatment in rural and urban communities: a counselor perspective. Subst Use Misuse. 2014;49(7):891–901. doi:10.3109/10826084.2014.891615.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nunes, AP, Richmond, MK, Marzano, K, Swenson, CJ, Lockhart, J. Ten years of implementing screening, brief intervention, and referral to treatment (SBIRT): lessons learned. Subst Abus. 2017;38(4):508–512. doi:10.1080/08897077.2017.1362369.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Saunders, EC, Moore, SK, Gardner, T, et al. Screening for substance use in rural primary care: a qualitative study of providers and patients. J Gen Intern Med. 2019;34(12):2824–2832. doi:10.1007/s11606-019-05232-y.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eisenberg, K, Woodruff, SI. Randomized controlled trial to evaluate screening and brief intervention for drug-using multiethnic emergency and trauma department patients. Addict Sci Clin Pract. 2013;8(1):8. doi:10.1186/1940-0640-8-8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Babor, TF, Del Boca, F, Bray, JW. Screening, brief intervention and referral to treatment: implications of SAMHSA’s SBIRT initiative for substance abuse policy and practice. Addiction. 2017;112(Suppl 2):110–117. doi:10.1111/add.13675.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Oesterle, TS, Hitschfeld, MJ, Lineberry, TW, Schneekloth, TD. CRAFFT as a substance use screening instrument for adolescent psychiatry admissions. J Psychiatr Pract. 2015;21(4):259–266. doi:10.1097/PRA.0000000000000083.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Calomarde-Gómez, C, Jiménez-Fernández, B, Balcells-Oliveró, M, Gual, A, López-Pelayo, H. Motivational interviewing for cannabis use disorders: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur Addict Res. 2021;27(6):413–427. doi:10.1159/000515667.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wilens, TE, Martelon, M, Joshi, G, et al. Does ADHD predict substance use disorders? A 10-year follow-up study of young adults with ADHD. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2011;50(6):543–553. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2011.01.021.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Weddle, M, Kokotailo, P. Adolescent substance abuse. Confidentiality and consent. Pediatr Clin North Am. 2002;49(2):301–315. doi:10.1016/s0031-3955(01)00005-0.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bostwick, JM. Blurred boundaries: the therapeutics and politics of medical marijuana. Mayo Clin Proc. 2012;87(2):172–186. doi:10.1016/j.mayocp.2011.10.003.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Miceh, R. Marijuana legalization and marijuana prevalence among adolescence. Am J Public Health. 2020;97:1644–1649.Google Scholar
Browne, T, Priester, MA, Clone, S, Iachini, A, DeHart, D, Hock, R. Barriers and facilitators to substance use treatment in the rural south: a qualitative study. J Rural Health. 2016;32(1):92–101. doi:10.1111/jrh.12129.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Young-Wolff, KC, Sarovar, V, Tucker, LY, et al. Self-reported daily, weekly, and monthly cannabis use among women before and during pregnancy. JAMA Network Open. 2019;2(7):e196471–e196471. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2019.6471.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Miech, R. Marijuana legalization and marijuana prevalence among adolescents. Am J Public Health. 2020;110(9):1268–1269. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2020.305847.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Andraka-Christou, B, Alex, B, Lyneé Madeira, J. College student preferences for substance use disorder educational videos: a qualitative study. Subst Use Misuse. 2019;54(8):1400–1407. doi:10.1080/10826084.2019.1581816.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wotring, A, Paprzycki, P, Wagner-Green, V, et al. Primary versus secondary prevention messages: college students’ perceptions of effectiveness by marijuana user status. J Am Coll Health. 2019;67(8):743–752. doi:10.1080/07448481.2018.1506790.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sherman, BJ, McRae-Clark, AL. Treatment of cannabis use disorder: current science and future outlook. Pharmacotherapy. 2016;36(5):511–535. doi:10.1002/phar.1747.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schueller, SM, Hunter, JF, Figueroa, C, Aguilera, A. Use of digital mental health for marginalized and underserved populations. Curr Treat Options Psych. 2019;6(3):243–255. doi:10.1007/s40501-019-00181-z.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Medicare Telemedicine Health Care Provider Fact Sheet | CMS. https://www.cms.gov/newsroom/fact-sheets/medicare-telemedicine-health-care-provider-fact-sheet. Accessed November 24, 2021.Google Scholar
Westbrook, M, Martinez, L, Mechergui, S, Yeatman, S. The influence of school-based health center access on high school graduation: evidence from Colorado. J Adolesc Health. 2020;67(3):447–449. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2020.04.012.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Duran, DG, Pérez-Stable, EJ. Novel approaches to advance minority health and health disparities research. Am J Public Health. 2019;109(S1):S8–S10. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2018.304931.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Crouch, E, Radcliff, E, Probst, JC, Bennett, KJ, McKinney, SH. Rural-urban differences in adverse childhood experiences across a national sample of children. J Rural Health. 2020;36(1):55–64. doi:10.1111/jrh.12366.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Figure 0

Table 1. Evidence-Based Strategies for Cannabis Crisis in Rural America