72 results
Nanoscale Engineering of Magnetic Textures in the Layered Magnet CrSBr Using Electrons and Helium Ions
- Julian Klein, Thang Pham, Joachim D. Thomsen, Jonathan B. Curtis, Michael Lorke, Matthias Florian, Alexander Steinhoff, Kate Reidy, Kierstin Torres, Ren A. Wiscons, Jan Luxa, Zdenek Sofer, Frank Jahnke, Prineha Narang, Frances M. Ross
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- Journal:
- Microscopy and Microanalysis / Volume 28 / Issue S1 / August 2022
- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 22 July 2022, pp. 1722-1723
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- August 2022
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How American Is Pragmatism?
- Alexander Klein
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- Philosophy of Science / Volume 88 / Issue 5 / December 2021
- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 01 January 2022, pp. 849-859
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- December 2021
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This essay examines the provenance of a single, curious term that William James often used in connection with his own pragmatism. The term is Denkmittel, an uncommon German contraction of Denk (thought) and Mittel (instrument). James’s Central European sources for this now forgotten bit of philosophical jargon provide a small illustration of a bigger historical point that too often gets obscured. Pragmatism—James’s pragmatism, at least—was both allied with and inspired by a broader sweep of scientific instrumentalism that was already flourishing in fin de siècle European philosophy.
3 - The Socialist Experiment and Beyond
- from Part I - Regional Developments
- Edited by Stephen Broadberry, University of Oxford, Kyoji Fukao, Hitotsubashi University, Tokyo
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- The Cambridge Economic History of the Modern World
- Published online:
- 03 June 2021
- Print publication:
- 24 June 2021, pp 74-99
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Using recent advances in historical national accounts and scholarship of the region, this chapter depicts the economic development of eastern Europe from the times of the Habsburg monarchy and the Russian Empire before World War I through the turbulent interwar years, with the onset of the communist regime and socialist experiment in Russia, the spread of the centrally planned economic system and communist rule in the post-World War II decades, its collapse in the late 1980s and then a decade of transition to market economies. The chapter assesses the region’s economic performance in each of these periods. Even though the path of eastern Europe since the late nineteenth century has been one marked by a series of significant shocks, there were also significant continuities, so that the socialist ‘experiment’ did not result in the significant break with the past that its architects had envisaged.
6 - On the Philosophical and Scientific Relationship between Ernst Mach and William James
- Edited by John Preston, University of Reading
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- Interpreting Mach
- Published online:
- 05 March 2021
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- 18 March 2021, pp 103-122
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Ernst Mach and William James were personal friends and intellectual allies. Might there have been an American pragmatist influence on Logical Positivism via James’s influence on Mach? I explore the relationship between these two friends, arguing that, if anything, Mach’s instrumentalism about science actually influenced James more than James’s pragmatism influenced Mach. What is more, empirical and not philosophical issues dominated their intellectual exchanges, and I examine the three topics about which they most frequently engaged one another: the role of the semicircular canals in the perception of bodily orientation, the question of whether there is a distinctive 'feeling of effort' (Innervationsgefühl), and the nature of visual spatial perception. The debate over the Innervationsgefühl is particularly interesting because James apparently convinced Mach to reverse his position on the matter. In short, we remember Mach as a master experimentalist and James as a philosophical populariser, so it is a surprise to learn that the main philosophical influence apparently flowed from Mach to James, while the main influence when it comes to matters of empirical interest actually flowed the other way.
20 - Moving from Theoretical Principles to Intervention Strategies: Applying the Experimental Medicine Approach
- from Part II - Methods and Processes of Behavior Change: Intervention Development, Application, and Translation
- Edited by Martin S. Hagger, Linda D. Cameron, Kyra Hamilton, Griffith University, Nelli Hankonen, University of Helsinki, Taru Lintunen, University of Jyväskylä
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- The Handbook of Behavior Change
- Published online:
- 04 July 2020
- Print publication:
- 23 July 2020, pp 285-299
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Efforts to address the major health, environmental, and social threats that can be found across the globe rely on changes in human behavior. Yet identifying effective and efficient ways to change behavior remains a vexing challenge. To meet this need, investigators need to design and evaluate behavioral intervention strategies in a manner that affords the creation of evidence-based guidelines that specify not only whether interventions work but also how and under what conditions. In this chapter, the design and testing of interventions are situated within the experimental medicine approach. This approach leverages the strength of the experimental method to test how behavior change intervention strategies work and to identify the conditions under which they operate effectively. Moreover, it organizes how investigators specify the questions that underlie the study of behavior change interventions and requires them to articulate precisely what intervention strategy they are using, how they think the strategy operates, and the outcomes it generates. Through the systematic use of this approach, evidence will emerge that addresses practitioners’ prevailing concerns directly – what intervention strategy is the most effective and efficient way to address the problem at hand. This chapter provides an overview of how to implement the experimental medicine approach, describes its key features, and addresses the importance of precision and, finally, considers this approach within a broader set of initiatives that have emerged to support a programmatic approach to the design, evaluation, and implementation of behavior change interventions.
Drop fragmentation by laser-pulse impact
- Alexander L. Klein, Dmitry Kurilovich, Henri Lhuissier, Oscar O. Versolato, Detlef Lohse, Emmanuel Villermaux, Hanneke Gelderblom
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- Journal:
- Journal of Fluid Mechanics / Volume 893 / 25 June 2020
- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 17 April 2020, A7
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We study the fragmentation of a liquid drop that is hit by a laser pulse. The drop expands into a thin sheet that breaks by the radial expulsion of ligaments from its rim and the nucleation and growth of holes on the sheet. By combining experimental data from two liquid systems with vastly different time and length scales, we show how the early-time laser–matter interaction affects the late-time fragmentation. We identify two Rayleigh–Taylor instabilities of different origins as the prime cause of the fragmentation and derive scaling laws for the characteristic breakup time and wavenumber. The final web of ligaments results from a subtle interplay between these instabilities and deterministic modulations of the local sheet thickness, which originate from the drop deformation dynamics and spatial variations in the laser-beam profile.
The Determinants of International Migration in Early Modern Europe: Evidence from the Maritime Sector, c. 1700–1800
- Alexander Klein, Jelle van Lottum
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- Journal:
- Social Science History / Volume 44 / Issue 1 / Spring 2020
- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 26 February 2020, pp. 143-167
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- Spring 2020
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This article offers the first multivariate regression study of international migration in early modern Europe. Using unique eighteenth-century data about maritime workers, we created a data set of migration flows among European countries to examine the role of factors related to geography, population, language, the market, and chain migration in explaining the migration of these workers across countries. We show that among all factors considered in our multivariate analysis, the geographical characteristics of the destination countries, size of port towns, and past migrations are among the most robust and quantitatively the most important factors influencing cross-country migration flows.
William James’s Objection to Epiphenomenalism
- Alexander Klein
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- Journal:
- Philosophy of Science / Volume 86 / Issue 5 / December 2019
- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 01 January 2022, pp. 1179-1190
- Print publication:
- December 2019
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James developed an evolutionary objection to epiphenomenalism that is still discussed today. Epiphenomenalists have offered responses that do not grasp its full depth. I thus offer a new reading and assessment of James’s objection. Our life-essential, phenomenal pleasures and pains have three features that suggest that they were shaped by selection, according to James: they are natively patterned, those patterns are systematically linked with antecedent brain states, and the patterns are “universal” among humans. If epiphenomenalism were true, phenomenal patterns could not have been selected (because epiphenomenalism precludes phenomenal consciousness affecting reproductive success). So epiphenomenalism is likely false.
Drop deformation by laser-pulse impact
- Hanneke Gelderblom, Henri Lhuissier, Alexander L. Klein, Wilco Bouwhuis, Detlef Lohse, Emmanuel Villermaux, Jacco H. Snoeijer
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- Journal:
- Journal of Fluid Mechanics / Volume 794 / 10 May 2016
- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 06 April 2016, pp. 676-699
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A free falling, absorbing liquid drop hit by a nanosecond laser pulse experiences a strong recoil pressure kick. As a consequence, the drop propels forward and deforms into a thin sheet which eventually fragments. We study how the drop deformation depends on the pulse shape and drop properties. We first derive the velocity field inside the drop on the time scale of the pressure pulse, when the drop is still spherical. This yields the kinetic energy partition inside the drop, which precisely measures the deformation rate with respect to the propulsion rate, before surface tension comes into play. On the time scale where surface tension is important, the drop has evolved into a thin sheet. Its expansion dynamics is described with a slender-slope model, which uses the impulsive energy partition as an initial condition. Completed with boundary integral simulations, this two-stage model explains the entire drop dynamics and its dependence on the pulse shape: for a given propulsion, a tightly focused pulse results in a thin curved sheet which maximizes the lateral expansion, while a uniform illumination yields a smaller expansion but a flat symmetric sheet, in good agreement with experimental observations.
Contributors
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- By Mitchell Aboulafia, Frederick Adams, Marilyn McCord Adams, Robert M. Adams, Laird Addis, James W. Allard, David Allison, William P. Alston, Karl Ameriks, C. Anthony Anderson, David Leech Anderson, Lanier Anderson, Roger Ariew, David Armstrong, Denis G. Arnold, E. J. Ashworth, Margaret Atherton, Robin Attfield, Bruce Aune, Edward Wilson Averill, Jody Azzouni, Kent Bach, Andrew Bailey, Lynne Rudder Baker, Thomas R. Baldwin, Jon Barwise, George Bealer, William Bechtel, Lawrence C. Becker, Mark A. Bedau, Ernst Behler, José A. Benardete, Ermanno Bencivenga, Jan Berg, Michael Bergmann, Robert L. Bernasconi, Sven Bernecker, Bernard Berofsky, Rod Bertolet, Charles J. Beyer, Christian Beyer, Joseph Bien, Joseph Bien, Peg Birmingham, Ivan Boh, James Bohman, Daniel Bonevac, Laurence BonJour, William J. Bouwsma, Raymond D. Bradley, Myles Brand, Richard B. Brandt, Michael E. Bratman, Stephen E. Braude, Daniel Breazeale, Angela Breitenbach, Jason Bridges, David O. Brink, Gordon G. Brittan, Justin Broackes, Dan W. Brock, Aaron Bronfman, Jeffrey E. Brower, Bartosz Brozek, Anthony Brueckner, Jeffrey Bub, Lara Buchak, Otavio Bueno, Ann E. Bumpus, Robert W. Burch, John Burgess, Arthur W. Burks, Panayot Butchvarov, Robert E. Butts, Marina Bykova, Patrick Byrne, David Carr, Noël Carroll, Edward S. Casey, Victor Caston, Victor Caston, Albert Casullo, Robert L. Causey, Alan K. L. Chan, Ruth Chang, Deen K. Chatterjee, Andrew Chignell, Roderick M. Chisholm, Kelly J. Clark, E. J. Coffman, Robin Collins, Brian P. Copenhaver, John Corcoran, John Cottingham, Roger Crisp, Frederick J. Crosson, Antonio S. Cua, Phillip D. Cummins, Martin Curd, Adam Cureton, Andrew Cutrofello, Stephen Darwall, Paul Sheldon Davies, Wayne A. Davis, Timothy Joseph Day, Claudio de Almeida, Mario De Caro, Mario De Caro, John Deigh, C. F. Delaney, Daniel C. Dennett, Michael R. DePaul, Michael Detlefsen, Daniel Trent Devereux, Philip E. Devine, John M. Dillon, Martin C. Dillon, Robert DiSalle, Mary Domski, Alan Donagan, Paul Draper, Fred Dretske, Mircea Dumitru, Wilhelm Dupré, Gerald Dworkin, John Earman, Ellery Eells, Catherine Z. Elgin, Berent Enç, Ronald P. Endicott, Edward Erwin, John Etchemendy, C. Stephen Evans, Susan L. Feagin, Solomon Feferman, Richard Feldman, Arthur Fine, Maurice A. Finocchiaro, William FitzPatrick, Richard E. Flathman, Gvozden Flego, Richard Foley, Graeme Forbes, Rainer Forst, Malcolm R. Forster, Daniel Fouke, Patrick Francken, Samuel Freeman, Elizabeth Fricker, Miranda Fricker, Michael Friedman, Michael Fuerstein, Richard A. Fumerton, Alan Gabbey, Pieranna Garavaso, Daniel Garber, Jorge L. A. Garcia, Robert K. Garcia, Don Garrett, Philip Gasper, Gerald Gaus, Berys Gaut, Bernard Gert, Roger F. Gibson, Cody Gilmore, Carl Ginet, Alan H. Goldman, Alvin I. Goldman, Alfonso Gömez-Lobo, Lenn E. Goodman, Robert M. Gordon, Stefan Gosepath, Jorge J. E. Gracia, Daniel W. Graham, George A. Graham, Peter J. Graham, Richard E. Grandy, I. Grattan-Guinness, John Greco, Philip T. Grier, Nicholas Griffin, Nicholas Griffin, David A. Griffiths, Paul J. Griffiths, Stephen R. Grimm, Charles L. Griswold, Charles B. Guignon, Pete A. Y. Gunter, Dimitri Gutas, Gary Gutting, Paul Guyer, Kwame Gyekye, Oscar A. Haac, Raul Hakli, Raul Hakli, Michael Hallett, Edward C. Halper, Jean Hampton, R. James Hankinson, K. R. Hanley, Russell Hardin, Robert M. Harnish, William Harper, David Harrah, Kevin Hart, Ali Hasan, William Hasker, John Haugeland, Roger Hausheer, William Heald, Peter Heath, Richard Heck, John F. Heil, Vincent F. Hendricks, Stephen Hetherington, Francis Heylighen, Kathleen Marie Higgins, Risto Hilpinen, Harold T. Hodes, Joshua Hoffman, Alan Holland, Robert L. Holmes, Richard Holton, Brad W. Hooker, Terence E. Horgan, Tamara Horowitz, Paul Horwich, Vittorio Hösle, Paul Hoβfeld, Daniel Howard-Snyder, Frances Howard-Snyder, Anne Hudson, Deal W. Hudson, Carl A. Huffman, David L. Hull, Patricia Huntington, Thomas Hurka, Paul Hurley, Rosalind Hursthouse, Guillermo Hurtado, Ronald E. Hustwit, Sarah Hutton, Jonathan Jenkins Ichikawa, Harry A. Ide, David Ingram, Philip J. Ivanhoe, Alfred L. Ivry, Frank Jackson, Dale Jacquette, Joseph Jedwab, Richard Jeffrey, David Alan Johnson, Edward Johnson, Mark D. Jordan, Richard Joyce, Hwa Yol Jung, Robert Hillary Kane, Tomis Kapitan, Jacquelyn Ann K. Kegley, James A. Keller, Ralph Kennedy, Sergei Khoruzhii, Jaegwon Kim, Yersu Kim, Nathan L. King, Patricia Kitcher, Peter D. Klein, E. D. Klemke, Virginia Klenk, George L. Kline, Christian Klotz, Simo Knuuttila, Joseph J. Kockelmans, Konstantin Kolenda, Sebastian Tomasz Kołodziejczyk, Isaac Kramnick, Richard Kraut, Fred Kroon, Manfred Kuehn, Steven T. Kuhn, Henry E. Kyburg, John Lachs, Jennifer Lackey, Stephen E. Lahey, Andrea Lavazza, Thomas H. Leahey, Joo Heung Lee, Keith Lehrer, Dorothy Leland, Noah M. Lemos, Ernest LePore, Sarah-Jane Leslie, Isaac Levi, Andrew Levine, Alan E. Lewis, Daniel E. Little, Shu-hsien Liu, Shu-hsien Liu, Alan K. L. Chan, Brian Loar, Lawrence B. Lombard, John Longeway, Dominic McIver Lopes, Michael J. Loux, E. J. Lowe, Steven Luper, Eugene C. Luschei, William G. Lycan, David Lyons, David Macarthur, Danielle Macbeth, Scott MacDonald, Jacob L. Mackey, Louis H. Mackey, Penelope Mackie, Edward H. Madden, Penelope Maddy, G. B. Madison, Bernd Magnus, Pekka Mäkelä, Rudolf A. Makkreel, David Manley, William E. Mann (W.E.M.), Vladimir Marchenkov, Peter Markie, Jean-Pierre Marquis, Ausonio Marras, Mike W. Martin, A. P. Martinich, William L. McBride, David McCabe, Storrs McCall, Hugh J. McCann, Robert N. McCauley, John J. McDermott, Sarah McGrath, Ralph McInerny, Daniel J. McKaughan, Thomas McKay, Michael McKinsey, Brian P. McLaughlin, Ernan McMullin, Anthonie Meijers, Jack W. Meiland, William Jason Melanson, Alfred R. Mele, Joseph R. Mendola, Christopher Menzel, Michael J. Meyer, Christian B. Miller, David W. Miller, Peter Millican, Robert N. Minor, Phillip Mitsis, James A. Montmarquet, Michael S. Moore, Tim Moore, Benjamin Morison, Donald R. Morrison, Stephen J. Morse, Paul K. Moser, Alexander P. D. Mourelatos, Ian Mueller, James Bernard Murphy, Mark C. Murphy, Steven Nadler, Jan Narveson, Alan Nelson, Jerome Neu, Samuel Newlands, Kai Nielsen, Ilkka Niiniluoto, Carlos G. Noreña, Calvin G. Normore, David Fate Norton, Nikolaj Nottelmann, Donald Nute, David S. Oderberg, Steve Odin, Michael O’Rourke, Willard G. Oxtoby, Heinz Paetzold, George S. Pappas, Anthony J. Parel, Lydia Patton, R. P. Peerenboom, Francis Jeffry Pelletier, Adriaan T. Peperzak, Derk Pereboom, Jaroslav Peregrin, Glen Pettigrove, Philip Pettit, Edmund L. Pincoffs, Andrew Pinsent, Robert B. Pippin, Alvin Plantinga, Louis P. Pojman, Richard H. Popkin, John F. Post, Carl J. Posy, William J. Prior, Richard Purtill, Michael Quante, Philip L. Quinn, Philip L. Quinn, Elizabeth S. Radcliffe, Diana Raffman, Gerard Raulet, Stephen L. Read, Andrews Reath, Andrew Reisner, Nicholas Rescher, Henry S. Richardson, Robert C. Richardson, Thomas Ricketts, Wayne D. Riggs, Mark Roberts, Robert C. Roberts, Luke Robinson, Alexander Rosenberg, Gary Rosenkranz, Bernice Glatzer Rosenthal, Adina L. Roskies, William L. Rowe, T. M. Rudavsky, Michael Ruse, Bruce Russell, Lilly-Marlene Russow, Dan Ryder, R. M. Sainsbury, Joseph Salerno, Nathan Salmon, Wesley C. Salmon, Constantine Sandis, David H. Sanford, Marco Santambrogio, David Sapire, Ruth A. Saunders, Geoffrey Sayre-McCord, Charles Sayward, James P. Scanlan, Richard Schacht, Tamar Schapiro, Frederick F. Schmitt, Jerome B. Schneewind, Calvin O. Schrag, Alan D. Schrift, George F. Schumm, Jean-Loup Seban, David N. Sedley, Kenneth Seeskin, Krister Segerberg, Charlene Haddock Seigfried, Dennis M. Senchuk, James F. Sennett, William Lad Sessions, Stewart Shapiro, Tommie Shelby, Donald W. Sherburne, Christopher Shields, Roger A. Shiner, Sydney Shoemaker, Robert K. Shope, Kwong-loi Shun, Wilfried Sieg, A. John Simmons, Robert L. Simon, Marcus G. Singer, Georgette Sinkler, Walter Sinnott-Armstrong, Matti T. Sintonen, Lawrence Sklar, Brian Skyrms, Robert C. Sleigh, Michael Anthony Slote, Hans Sluga, Barry Smith, Michael Smith, Robin Smith, Robert Sokolowski, Robert C. Solomon, Marta Soniewicka, Philip Soper, Ernest Sosa, Nicholas Southwood, Paul Vincent Spade, T. L. S. Sprigge, Eric O. Springsted, George J. Stack, Rebecca Stangl, Jason Stanley, Florian Steinberger, Sören Stenlund, Christopher Stephens, James P. Sterba, Josef Stern, Matthias Steup, M. A. Stewart, Leopold Stubenberg, Edith Dudley Sulla, Frederick Suppe, Jere Paul Surber, David George Sussman, Sigrún Svavarsdóttir, Zeno G. Swijtink, Richard Swinburne, Charles C. Taliaferro, Robert B. Talisse, John Tasioulas, Paul Teller, Larry S. Temkin, Mark Textor, H. S. Thayer, Peter Thielke, Alan Thomas, Amie L. Thomasson, Katherine Thomson-Jones, Joshua C. Thurow, Vzalerie Tiberius, Terrence N. Tice, Paul Tidman, Mark C. Timmons, William Tolhurst, James E. Tomberlin, Rosemarie Tong, Lawrence Torcello, Kelly Trogdon, J. D. Trout, Robert E. Tully, Raimo Tuomela, John Turri, Martin M. Tweedale, Thomas Uebel, Jennifer Uleman, James Van Cleve, Harry van der Linden, Peter van Inwagen, Bryan W. Van Norden, René van Woudenberg, Donald Phillip Verene, Samantha Vice, Thomas Vinci, Donald Wayne Viney, Barbara Von Eckardt, Peter B. M. Vranas, Steven J. Wagner, William J. Wainwright, Paul E. Walker, Robert E. Wall, Craig Walton, Douglas Walton, Eric Watkins, Richard A. Watson, Michael V. Wedin, Rudolph H. Weingartner, Paul Weirich, Paul J. Weithman, Carl Wellman, Howard Wettstein, Samuel C. Wheeler, Stephen A. White, Jennifer Whiting, Edward R. Wierenga, Michael Williams, Fred Wilson, W. Kent Wilson, Kenneth P. Winkler, John F. Wippel, Jan Woleński, Allan B. Wolter, Nicholas P. Wolterstorff, Rega Wood, W. Jay Wood, Paul Woodruff, Alison Wylie, Gideon Yaffe, Takashi Yagisawa, Yutaka Yamamoto, Keith E. Yandell, Xiaomei Yang, Dean Zimmerman, Günter Zoller, Catherine Zuckert, Michael Zuckert, Jack A. Zupko (J.A.Z.)
- Edited by Robert Audi, University of Notre Dame, Indiana
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- The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy
- Published online:
- 05 August 2015
- Print publication:
- 27 April 2015, pp ix-xxx
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11 - Epilogue: British economic growth, 1270–1870
- Stephen Broadberry, London School of Economics and Political Science, Bruce M. S. Campbell, Queen's University Belfast, Alexander Klein, University of Kent, Canterbury, Mark Overton, University of Exeter, Bas van Leeuwen, University of Warwick
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- British Economic Growth, 1270–1870
- Published online:
- 05 January 2015
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- 22 January 2015, pp 402-428
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Summary
Introduction
Between 1270 and 1870 Britain slowly progressed from the periphery of the European economy to centre-stage of an integrated world economy. In the process it escaped from Malthusian constraints and by the eighteenth century had successfully reconciled rising population with rising living standards. This final chapter reflects upon this protracted but profound economic transformation from the perspective of the national income estimates assembled in Part I and analysed in Part II of this book. Because Britain’s economic rise did not unfold in isolation, account is taken of the broader comparative context provided by the national income reconstructions now available for several other Eurasian countries: Spain from 1282, Italy from 1310 and Holland from 1348, plus Japan from 725, China from 980 and India from 1600. All are output-based estimates but have been derived via a range of alternative approaches according to the nature of the available historical evidence. Several make ingenious use of real wage rates and urbanisation ratios (Malanima, 2011; Álvarez-Nogal and Prados de la Escosura, 2013), two economic indicators often used as surrogates for estimates of GDP per head. Only the GDP estimates for Holland, like these for Britain, have been made the hard way, by summing the weighted value-added outputs of the agricultural, industrial and service sectors and then dividing the results by estimates of total population obtained by reconciling time-series and cross-sectional demographic data. Methodologically, the British and Dutch national income estimates are therefore the most directly comparable. Each is free from overdependence upon any single or narrow range of data series and, instead, they encapsulate variations in the wide range of economic indicators, appropriately weighted in line with their importance in overall economic activity, from which they have been reconstructed.
2 - Agricultural land use
- Stephen Broadberry, London School of Economics and Political Science, Bruce M. S. Campbell, Queen's University Belfast, Alexander Klein, University of Kent, Canterbury, Mark Overton, University of Exeter, Bas van Leeuwen, University of Warwick
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- British Economic Growth, 1270–1870
- Published online:
- 05 January 2015
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- 22 January 2015, pp 46-79
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Summary
Introduction
Agriculture was for long the single largest component of the English and British economies, both in terms of its share of employment and the value of its output. The latter was a function of the amount of land under cultivation, the uses to which it was put, the productivities of crops and animals and their respective prices. The main purpose of this chapter is to describe the methods used to derive the areas under arable and grass and, in particular, the total sown acreage. The crops produced and animals stocked are the subjects of the following chapter. Along the way, it will be demonstrated that claims that the peak arable area in the medieval period may have exceeded 20 million acres (Clark, 2007a: 124) are unrealistic, since, on the best available evidence, the combined total under field crops and fallow could not have been more than 12.75 million acres. In the absence of significant food imports, this limited both the population that could be supported and the supply of kilocalories per head needed for survival. It also shaped the production choices made by agricultural producers.
Comprehensive national agricultural statistics were collected annually from 1866 and provide the starting point for calculating the acreages of arable and grass (Anon, 1968; Coppock, 1984). Together with the tithe files, which provide a precise but incomplete guide to the share of land in each county devoted to arable production during the 1830s (Kain, 1986; Overton, 1986), they are used to provide a nineteenth-century benchmark. The chapter proceeds as follows. After a discussion of the potential agricultural area of England in Section 2.2, Section 2.3 reviews the arable acreage by county from the tithe files of the 1830s and from the agricultural statistics of 1871. Section 2.4 then examines changes in land use between 1290 and 1871, while Section 2.5 presents county-level estimates of the arable acreage in 1290. Section 2.6 provides a further cross-check by examining changes in land use between 1086 and 1290. Finally, Section 2.7 provides estimates of land use for a number of benchmark years between 1270 and 1871.
Frontmatter
- Stephen Broadberry, London School of Economics and Political Science, Bruce M. S. Campbell, Queen's University Belfast, Alexander Klein, University of Kent, Canterbury, Mark Overton, University of Exeter, Bas van Leeuwen, University of Warwick
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- British Economic Growth, 1270–1870
- Published online:
- 05 January 2015
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- 22 January 2015, pp i-iv
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1 - Population
- Stephen Broadberry, London School of Economics and Political Science, Bruce M. S. Campbell, Queen's University Belfast, Alexander Klein, University of Kent, Canterbury, Mark Overton, University of Exeter, Bas van Leeuwen, University of Warwick
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- British Economic Growth, 1270–1870
- Published online:
- 05 January 2015
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- 22 January 2015, pp 3-45
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Summary
Introduction
Economic growth can be either extensive or intensive. Extensive growth arises where more output is produced in line with a growing population but living standards remain constant, while intensive growth arises where more output is produced by each person. In the former case, there is no economic development, as the economy simply reproduces itself on a larger scale: in the latter, living standards rise as the economy goes through a process of economic development. To understand the long-run growth of the British economy reaching back to the thirteenth century therefore requires knowledge of the trajectories followed by both population and GDP. Of particular interest is whether periods of intensive growth, distinguished by rising GDP per head, were accompanied by expanding or contracting population. For it is one thing for living standards to rise during a period of population decline, such as that induced by the recurrent plagues of the second half of the fourteenth century, when survivors found themselves able to add the land and capital of those who had perished to their own stocks, but quite another for living standards and population to rise together, particularly given the emphasis of Malthus [1798] on diminishing returns. Indeed, Kuznets (1966: 34–85) identified simultaneous growth of population and income per head (i.e. the concurrence of intensive and extensive growth) as one of the key features that distinguished modern from pre-industrial economic growth.
7 - Consumption
- Stephen Broadberry, London School of Economics and Political Science, Bruce M. S. Campbell, Queen's University Belfast, Alexander Klein, University of Kent, Canterbury, Mark Overton, University of Exeter, Bas van Leeuwen, University of Warwick
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- British Economic Growth, 1270–1870
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- 05 January 2015
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- 22 January 2015, pp 279-306
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Summary
Introduction
Chapter 6 has argued that workers responded to changes in real wage rates by adapting how hard they worked so as to maintain their earnings. Household incomes therefore tracked GDP per head rather than real wage rates and progressively improved over time, doubling between the early fourteenth and late seventeenth centuries and doubling again over the course of the industrial revolution. Higher incomes translated into changing patterns of consumption and the forms these consumption choices took are the subjects of this chapter. Section 7.2 reconstructs the kilocalorie value and composition of diets based on the agricultural-output estimates presented in Chapter 3, augmented by information on imported foodstuffs. Given that populations require an average daily food intake per head of 2,000 kilocalories (Livi-Bacci, 1991: 27) to provide sufficient nourishment for both economic and biological reproduction, these calculations also provide a useful cross-check on the consistency of the agricultural-output and population estimates. Section 7.3 then considers non-food consumption drawing upon early modern evidence of material culture as revealed by probate inventories. Again, these trends need to be consistent with those of industrial output reconstructed in Chapter 4.
Price, habit, fashion and status all shaped the budgetary decisions taken by households. Demand for food was inelastic up to the point where basic subsistence needs had been met, but as incomes rose there were clear trade-offs to be obtained between increasing consumption of cheap sources of kilocalories such as pottage, potatoes and salted herrings on the one hand, or indulging in more expensive refined bread, quality ale and beer, dairy produce and meat, plus the imported luxuries of wine, sugar, tea, cocoa and tobacco, on the other. In effect, higher incomes allowed more households to trade up to a respectability basket of foodstuffs providing a more varied and processed diet but not necessarily more kilocalories. The changing relative prices of arable, livestock and luxury products influenced these consumption decisions, while the relative cheapness or dearness of food determined how much disposable income could be devoted to the increasingly varied and tempting array of non-food consumer goods (Figure 5.02).
Index
- Stephen Broadberry, London School of Economics and Political Science, Bruce M. S. Campbell, Queen's University Belfast, Alexander Klein, University of Kent, Canterbury, Mark Overton, University of Exeter, Bas van Leeuwen, University of Warwick
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- British Economic Growth, 1270–1870
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- 05 January 2015
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- 22 January 2015, pp 455-461
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8 - The social distribution of income
- Stephen Broadberry, London School of Economics and Political Science, Bruce M. S. Campbell, Queen's University Belfast, Alexander Klein, University of Kent, Canterbury, Mark Overton, University of Exeter, Bas van Leeuwen, University of Warwick
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- British Economic Growth, 1270–1870
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- 05 January 2015
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- 22 January 2015, pp 307-339
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Summary
Introduction
Income distribution in England between 1270 and 1870, as elsewhere in Western Europe, was profoundly unequal due to entrenched inequalities in access to the land, capital, education and political power upon which personal wealth depended. Gender, rank and servility and their differential legal rights were determined at birth. Privilege, patronage and position ensured that rent-seeking was rife, while warfare created opportunities for ransom and plunder to the enrichment of those in command and impoverishment of the vanquished. Everywhere, as a result, there were rich men in their castles and poor men at their gates. Moreover, as van Zanden (1995) and Milanovic and others (2007) have demonstrated, the effect of economic growth was to magnify rather than mitigate these inequalities and widen the income gap between those at the top and bottom of the social pyramid.
The rich became richer as average wealth grew because the more wealth there was the greater the opportunities for those with power and privilege to enrich themselves at the expense of the weak and disadvantaged majority. In Holland one legacy of the prosperity achieved during the Dutch Golden Age was a greatly increased inequality of incomes, which was more marked in towns than rural villages and greatest of all in major cities (van Zanden, 1995). In England, similarly, Milanovic and others (2007) claim that inequality rose with average incomes between 1688 and 1801/03, thereby confirming Kuznets’ (1955) observation that income inequality typically increased during the early stages of economic growth and only declined relatively late in the modernisation process. Prior to 1870, therefore, increasing inequality can be treated, like urbanisation, as a characteristic and unavoidable manifestation of economic growth.
List of Appendices
- Stephen Broadberry, London School of Economics and Political Science, Bruce M. S. Campbell, Queen's University Belfast, Alexander Klein, University of Kent, Canterbury, Mark Overton, University of Exeter, Bas van Leeuwen, University of Warwick
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- British Economic Growth, 1270–1870
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- 05 January 2015
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- 22 January 2015, pp xix-xx
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Part I - Measuring economic growth
- Stephen Broadberry, London School of Economics and Political Science, Bruce M. S. Campbell, Queen's University Belfast, Alexander Klein, University of Kent, Canterbury, Mark Overton, University of Exeter, Bas van Leeuwen, University of Warwick
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- British Economic Growth, 1270–1870
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- 05 January 2015
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- 22 January 2015, pp 1-2
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3 - Agricultural production
- Stephen Broadberry, London School of Economics and Political Science, Bruce M. S. Campbell, Queen's University Belfast, Alexander Klein, University of Kent, Canterbury, Mark Overton, University of Exeter, Bas van Leeuwen, University of Warwick
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- British Economic Growth, 1270–1870
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- 05 January 2015
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- 22 January 2015, pp 80-129
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Summary
Introduction
This chapter provides annual estimates of output in agriculture, which was the largest sector of the economy during the middle ages, and continued to play an important role throughout the period under consideration. The approach builds on the study of Overton and Campbell (1996), which tracked long-run trends in agricultural output and labour productivity, but was restricted to estimates for a small number of benchmark years. To provide annual estimates, heavy reliance has been made on three datasets assembled for the late-medieval, early modern and modern periods. For the period c.1250 to c.1500, a Medieval Accounts Database has been assembled by Campbell (2000, 2007), drawing upon the archival labours of a number of other historians, including David Farmer, John Langdon and Jan Titow. The information on arable yields and animal stocking densities is taken largely from manorial accounts, but is supplemented by information on the non-manorial sector from tithes. For the period c.1550 to c.1750, an Early Modern Probate Inventories Database has been assembled by Overton, which provides animal stocking densities and indirect estimates of arable yields from the valuation of the assets left by farmers (Overton and others, 2004). From the early eighteenth century, use is made of the Modern Farm Accounts Database assembled by Turner, Beckett and Afton (2001).
The chapter proceeds as follows. Section 3.2 provides a brief introduction to the main data sources for the three periods. Estimates of output for the arable sector are then given in Section 3.3, followed by estimates of livestock-sector output in Section 3.4. The arable and livestock outputs are combined in Section 3.5 to provide estimates of overall agricultural output, while Section 3.6 concludes.