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Contents
- Francesco de Bello, University of South Bohemia, Czech Republic, Carlos P. Carmona, University of Tartu, Estonia, André T. C. Dias, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Lars Götzenberger, Marco Moretti, Matty P. Berg, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam
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- Handbook of Trait-Based Ecology
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- 08 March 2021
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- 11 March 2021, pp vii-x
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Epigraph
- Francesco de Bello, University of South Bohemia, Czech Republic, Carlos P. Carmona, University of Tartu, Estonia, André T. C. Dias, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Lars Götzenberger, Marco Moretti, Matty P. Berg, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam
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- Handbook of Trait-Based Ecology
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11 - Trait Sampling Strategies
- Francesco de Bello, University of South Bohemia, Czech Republic, Carlos P. Carmona, University of Tartu, Estonia, André T. C. Dias, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Lars Götzenberger, Marco Moretti, Matty P. Berg, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam
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- Handbook of Trait-Based Ecology
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- 11 March 2021, pp 210-230
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Summary
Chapter 11 illustrates different strategies to obtain reliable and robust trait data from both field sampling and experiments. An exercise is provided to familiarize readers with different alternatives for sampling traits, and their implications for sampling effort, providing advice on defining a realistic trait sampling campaign. Examples show that a feasible sampling strategy needs to sacrifice aspects of trait variability of lower importance for the ecological questions being asked and how researchers should attempt to compromise between the most accurate and most precise estimations of trait values. Special attention is given to the expected effect of species turnover vs intraspecific trait variability adjustments across gradients, depending on the extent of the studied environmental gradient. The choice of a given sampling scheme is framed into simple trade-offs between two extreme cases: sampling several individuals for each species from only a single population, or sampling one individual per species in each population in which the species occur along a gradient. A flowchart guide for choosing among different sampling combinations along this trade-off is provided.
12 - Applied Trait-Based Ecology
- Francesco de Bello, University of South Bohemia, Czech Republic, Carlos P. Carmona, University of Tartu, Estonia, André T. C. Dias, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Lars Götzenberger, Marco Moretti, Matty P. Berg, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam
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- Handbook of Trait-Based Ecology
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- 11 March 2021, pp 231-249
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Summary
Chapter 12 provides some key examples of how to use trait-based methods as a tool for biodiversity monitoring, one that often shows more sensitivity to environmental changes as compared to taxonomic-based metrics. The examples show how trait-based approaches can help to broaden the scope of applied environmental sciences, using ecological theory to solve different types of environmental issues of concern. Focusing on response and effect traits, a discussion is provided on how it is possible to restore or create new ecological communities that are more resilient to environmental changes, or that enhance desirable ecosystem services. Finally, it is argued that poor literacy in functional ecology might act as a barrier to communicating with decision makers, and incorporating trait-based approaches in environmental policies.
Preface
- Francesco de Bello, University of South Bohemia, Czech Republic, Carlos P. Carmona, University of Tartu, Estonia, André T. C. Dias, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Lars Götzenberger, Marco Moretti, Matty P. Berg, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam
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- 11 March 2021, pp xi-xiv
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6 - Intraspecific Trait Variability
- Francesco de Bello, University of South Bohemia, Czech Republic, Carlos P. Carmona, University of Tartu, Estonia, André T. C. Dias, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Lars Götzenberger, Marco Moretti, Matty P. Berg, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam
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- Handbook of Trait-Based Ecology
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- 11 March 2021, pp 105-128
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Chapter 6 analyses the ecological mechanisms, and implications, of intraspecific trait variability (ITV) and some key approaches to take ITV properly into account in modern trait-based analyses. The different sources of ITV, genetic variation, epigenetic effects and phenotypic plasticity, are discussed and put in the context of species evolution, adaptation to environmental conditions, species distribution potential (including invasive species) and the effects of species on multiple ecosystem properties and trophic interactions. Different tools are provided to quantify how strong ITV affect ecological patterns. A comparison of within- vs between-species trait variability in a community is discussed. Tools showing how strong the effect of changes in species composition (turnover) compared to ITV along environmental gradients are provided. Finally, methods considering ITV to quantify trait differences between species, via trait overlap in trait probability distributions, are discussed in the light of modern tools measuring functional diversity across different scales
8 - Traits and Phylogenies
- Francesco de Bello, University of South Bohemia, Czech Republic, Carlos P. Carmona, University of Tartu, Estonia, André T. C. Dias, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Lars Götzenberger, Marco Moretti, Matty P. Berg, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam
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Chapter 8 illustrates the importance of considering the phylogeny of species when investigating different ecological questions related to species traits. First, the concept of phylogenetic trees is provided with the notion that, in some cases, species that share a common ancestor share some common traits, while in others distantly related species have evolved similar adaptations independently. Models of evolution, in particular the Brownian motion model, are introduced to set a reference for comparing the extent of trait conservatism. The importance of phylogeny is first discussed with respect to ‘species level’ analyses (Chapter 4) relating traits, species environmental preferences and species fitness. Tests such as Phylogenetic Independent Contrasts (PICs) are discussed in terms of whether they provide, or not, a way to ‘correct’ for the phylogenetic non-independence between species. Then the concept of phylogenetic relatedness between species is discussed in the context of Phylogenetic Diversity (PD) indices and combined with functional diversity measurements. Different R tools are described to support these types of analyses in the material accompanying this book.
3 - The Ecology of Differences
- Francesco de Bello, University of South Bohemia, Czech Republic, Carlos P. Carmona, University of Tartu, Estonia, André T. C. Dias, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Lars Götzenberger, Marco Moretti, Matty P. Berg, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam
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Chapter 3 provides an overview of the concepts and approaches needed to assess ecological and phenotypic differentiation between organisms. First, an historical perspective on earlier systems ‘classifying’ species in terms of their traits into different ‘types’ is provided. Second, other schemes such as the r/K continuum, the C-S-R scheme and the leaf economic spectrum are introduced. These approaches, aimed at defining different ‘types’ of organisms, are discussed in terms of their importance for interpreting ecological patterns and for communication with non-experts. A further distinction between response and effect functional groups is provided, with a guideline on how to define these groups with ‘a priori’ ecological hypotheses or ‘a posteriori’ data-driven approaches. The Gower distance is introduced as a useful way to characterize the differences between organisms in terms of multiple types of traits. At the same time, a number of often overlooked problems with this distance metric are discussed. The R material for this chapter illustrates these issues with practical examples.
Index
- Francesco de Bello, University of South Bohemia, Czech Republic, Carlos P. Carmona, University of Tartu, Estonia, André T. C. Dias, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Lars Götzenberger, Marco Moretti, Matty P. Berg, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam
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References
- Francesco de Bello, University of South Bohemia, Czech Republic, Carlos P. Carmona, University of Tartu, Estonia, André T. C. Dias, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Lars Götzenberger, Marco Moretti, Matty P. Berg, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam
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- 11 March 2021, pp 250-291
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Copyright page
- Francesco de Bello, University of South Bohemia, Czech Republic, Carlos P. Carmona, University of Tartu, Estonia, André T. C. Dias, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Lars Götzenberger, Marco Moretti, Matty P. Berg, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam
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4 - Response Traits and the Filtering Metaphor
- Francesco de Bello, University of South Bohemia, Czech Republic, Carlos P. Carmona, University of Tartu, Estonia, André T. C. Dias, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Lars Götzenberger, Marco Moretti, Matty P. Berg, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam
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Summary
Chapter 4 focuses on different approaches to studying the relationship between environmental conditions and trait variability, both within and between species. First, an historical perspective on species distribution and adaptations along environmental gradients is provided. The concept of environmental gradients is then discussed in depth, with distinctions between different types of gradients. This leads to a description of the widely applied trait-filtering metaphor, describing how environmental conditions filter out species with traits less adapted to a given habitat. The distinction between different types of analyses relating traits to environmental conditions is discussed (species- vs community-level analyses). Examples of these analyses are provided in the accompanying R material for this chapter. The importance of species-level analyses is highlighted, particularly in terms of species’ trait-fitness relationships and the parameterization of species distribution models.
10 - Response and Effect Traits across Trophic Levels
- Francesco de Bello, University of South Bohemia, Czech Republic, Carlos P. Carmona, University of Tartu, Estonia, André T. C. Dias, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Lars Götzenberger, Marco Moretti, Matty P. Berg, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam
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Summary
Chapter 10 synthesizes the concepts already introduced, regarding response and effect traits, into the so-called response--effect trait framework. It shows how such a framework can be expanded and tested across different trophic levels, thus assessing how functional traits control species interactions and the consequences of these interactions for ecosystem functioning. The concepts of ‘trophic effect' and 'response traits’ are introduced to assess how traits within a trophic level affect other trophic levels. A further discussion is provided on interesting perspectives incorporating trait-based concepts into plant--animal interaction networks, to identify both niche and neutral mechanisms driving interactions networks and the resulting ecosystem services. Finally, the importance of intraspecific trait variability in the context of species interactions, and ecosystem processes resulting from them, is discussed. The R material accompanying this chapter provides one approach on how to calculate species interaction niche.
9 - Effects of Traits on Ecosystem Processes and Services
- Francesco de Bello, University of South Bohemia, Czech Republic, Carlos P. Carmona, University of Tartu, Estonia, André T. C. Dias, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Lars Götzenberger, Marco Moretti, Matty P. Berg, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam
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Chapter 9 builds on the concepts of effect traits to provide a tool for connecting biodiversity effects to multiple ecosystem processes and services, through species traits. First, an overview of the multiple effects of different traits, and organism types, on different ecosystem processes is provided. Then, two main hypotheses are proposed to explain how traits influence ecosystem processes: the mass ratio hypothesis (the dominant trait in the community, mainly associated to CWM) and the complementarity hypothesis (the variation in trait values in the community, mainly associated to FD). A detailed discussion is provided on how to disentangle the roles of CWM and FD in affecting ecosystem functions, for which specifically designed experiments are often needed (particularly to tease apart the mathematical non-independence between CWM and FD). These tools are further discussed in the light of classical approaches decomposing biodiversity effects into different components (net diversity effect, selection effect and niche complementarity).
5 - Community Metrics
- Francesco de Bello, University of South Bohemia, Czech Republic, Carlos P. Carmona, University of Tartu, Estonia, André T. C. Dias, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Lars Götzenberger, Marco Moretti, Matty P. Berg, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam
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Chapter 5 provides concepts and tools to characterize the functional trait structure of communities. Various indices are introduced, mainly community weighted mean (CWM) and various functional diversity (FD) indices. The power and the limitations of CWM are discussed. Various indices of FD, which expresses the extent of trait differences between organisms, are introduced to simplify their use and interpretation. The broad classification into ‘families’ of indices, i.e. functional richness, functional evenness and functional divergence, is discussed. A selection of indices, with their ability to provide a measure of FD at different scales (alpha, beta and gamma diversity), is discussed, together with other emerging components such as functional redundancy and functional rarity. A discussion on existing R tools, with their potential tricks and problems, is provided, also with examples available in the R material accompanying this chapter.
7 - Community Assembly Rules
- Francesco de Bello, University of South Bohemia, Czech Republic, Carlos P. Carmona, University of Tartu, Estonia, André T. C. Dias, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Lars Götzenberger, Marco Moretti, Matty P. Berg, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam
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Chapter 7 expands on the ideas already introduced in Chapters 4 and 6 on community assembly rules, understood as any constraint restricting the number and identity of the species observed in an assemblage. The different ecological processes behind such rules are discussed, together with the expected effects of these rules on trait patterns (trait convergence vs trait divergence) at different ecological scales. The importance of defining a proper reference species pool for assessing these mechanisms is explained. A further discussion is provided on the difficulty of ascertaining the specific ecological processes leading to observed patterns of trait variation without experimental approaches. This leads to introducing how null models and data randomizations can provide valuable insight into different assembly rules mechanisms, when proper care is given to considering the effect of scale and an adequate reference species pool. The R examples accompanying this chapter provide different tools to implement a variety of null models in combinations with functional diversity indices.
2 - Trait Selection and Standardization
- Francesco de Bello, University of South Bohemia, Czech Republic, Carlos P. Carmona, University of Tartu, Estonia, André T. C. Dias, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Lars Götzenberger, Marco Moretti, Matty P. Berg, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam
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Chapter 2 provides general answers to some of the most frequently asked questions by researchers and practitioners aiming to apply trait-based methods: How to select the right trait(s) and how many traits should be selected? Where to find reliable trait values? Are the trait values provided in the literature or databases appropriate, and sufficient, for a given study system, or should traits be measured in the field? The need for standardization in trait measurements is discussed, particularly in terms of the importance of building reliable and useful trait databases. Different types of traits (quantitative, categorical, circular etc.) are introduced, as multiple types of traits are often needed to answer most ecological questions. A list is provided of existing trait databases from which trait information for different taxonomic groups can be obtained. The R material accompanying the book provides tools to extract trait data from some of these databases and combine it with other available species and community data.
1 - General Introduction
- Francesco de Bello, University of South Bohemia, Czech Republic, Carlos P. Carmona, University of Tartu, Estonia, André T. C. Dias, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Lars Götzenberger, Marco Moretti, Matty P. Berg, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam
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Chapter 1 summarizes the main concepts representing the pillars of trait-based ecology. Key definitions from the literature, and widely used in the book, are synthetized and clarified. This includes an in-depth discussion of which traits are to be considered more functional, dissecting the relationship between species traits and species fitness and how this can change across different habitats. The classic distinction between response and effect traits is introduced, together with some broad open challenges for future research in trait-based ecology.
Handbook of Trait-Based Ecology
- From Theory to R Tools
- Francesco de Bello, Carlos P. Carmona, André T. C. Dias, Lars Götzenberger, Marco Moretti, Matty P. Berg
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Functional ecology is the branch of ecology that focuses on various functions that species play in the community or ecosystem in which they occur. This accessible guide offers the main concepts and tools in trait-based ecology, and their tricks, covering different trophic levels and organism types. It is designed for students, researchers and practitioners who wish to get a handy synthesis of existing concepts, tools and trends in trait-based ecology, and wish to apply it to their own field of interest. Where relevant, exercises specifically designed to be run in R are included, along with accompanying on-line resources including solutions for exercises and R functions, and updates reflecting current developments in this fast-changing field. Based on more than a decade of teaching experience, the authors developed and improved the way theoretical aspects and analytical tools of trait-based ecology are introduced and explained to readers.
Contributors
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- By Rose Teteki Abbey, K. C. Abraham, David Tuesday Adamo, LeRoy H. Aden, Efrain Agosto, Victor Aguilan, Gillian T. W. Ahlgren, Charanjit Kaur AjitSingh, Dorothy B E A Akoto, Giuseppe Alberigo, Daniel E. Albrecht, Ruth Albrecht, Daniel O. Aleshire, Urs Altermatt, Anand Amaladass, Michael Amaladoss, James N. Amanze, Lesley G. Anderson, Thomas C. Anderson, Victor Anderson, Hope S. Antone, María Pilar Aquino, Paula Arai, Victorio Araya Guillén, S. Wesley Ariarajah, Ellen T. Armour, Brett Gregory Armstrong, Atsuhiro Asano, Naim Stifan Ateek, Mahmoud Ayoub, John Alembillah Azumah, Mercedes L. García Bachmann, Irena Backus, J. Wayne Baker, Mieke Bal, Lewis V. Baldwin, William Barbieri, António Barbosa da Silva, David Basinger, Bolaji Olukemi Bateye, Oswald Bayer, Daniel H. Bays, Rosalie Beck, Nancy Elizabeth Bedford, Guy-Thomas Bedouelle, Chorbishop Seely Beggiani, Wolfgang Behringer, Christopher M. Bellitto, Byard Bennett, Harold V. Bennett, Teresa Berger, Miguel A. Bernad, Henley Bernard, Alan E. Bernstein, Jon L. Berquist, Johannes Beutler, Ana María Bidegain, Matthew P. Binkewicz, Jennifer Bird, Joseph Blenkinsopp, Dmytro Bondarenko, Paulo Bonfatti, Riet en Pim Bons-Storm, Jessica A. Boon, Marcus J. Borg, Mark Bosco, Peter C. Bouteneff, François Bovon, William D. Bowman, Paul S. Boyer, David Brakke, Richard E. Brantley, Marcus Braybrooke, Ian Breward, Ênio José da Costa Brito, Jewel Spears Brooker, Johannes Brosseder, Nicholas Canfield Read Brown, Robert F. Brown, Pamela K. Brubaker, Walter Brueggemann, Bishop Colin O. Buchanan, Stanley M. Burgess, Amy Nelson Burnett, J. Patout Burns, David B. Burrell, David Buttrick, James P. Byrd, Lavinia Byrne, Gerado Caetano, Marcos Caldas, Alkiviadis Calivas, William J. Callahan, Salvatore Calomino, Euan K. Cameron, William S. Campbell, Marcelo Ayres Camurça, Daniel F. Caner, Paul E. Capetz, Carlos F. Cardoza-Orlandi, Patrick W. Carey, Barbara Carvill, Hal Cauthron, Subhadra Mitra Channa, Mark D. Chapman, James H. Charlesworth, Kenneth R. Chase, Chen Zemin, Luciano Chianeque, Philip Chia Phin Yin, Francisca H. Chimhanda, Daniel Chiquete, John T. Chirban, Soobin Choi, Robert Choquette, Mita Choudhury, Gerald Christianson, John Chryssavgis, Sejong Chun, Esther Chung-Kim, Charles M. A. Clark, Elizabeth A. Clark, Sathianathan Clarke, Fred Cloud, John B. Cobb, W. Owen Cole, John A Coleman, John J. Collins, Sylvia Collins-Mayo, Paul K. Conkin, Beth A. Conklin, Sean Connolly, Demetrios J. Constantelos, Michael A. Conway, Paula M. Cooey, Austin Cooper, Michael L. Cooper-White, Pamela Cooper-White, L. William Countryman, Sérgio Coutinho, Pamela Couture, Shannon Craigo-Snell, James L. Crenshaw, David Crowner, Humberto Horacio Cucchetti, Lawrence S. Cunningham, Elizabeth Mason Currier, Emmanuel Cutrone, Mary L. Daniel, David D. Daniels, Robert Darden, Rolf Darge, Isaiah Dau, Jeffry C. Davis, Jane Dawson, Valentin Dedji, John W. de Gruchy, Paul DeHart, Wendy J. Deichmann Edwards, Miguel A. De La Torre, George E. Demacopoulos, Thomas de Mayo, Leah DeVun, Beatriz de Vasconcellos Dias, Dennis C. Dickerson, John M. Dillon, Luis Miguel Donatello, Igor Dorfmann-Lazarev, Susanna Drake, Jonathan A. Draper, N. Dreher Martin, Otto Dreydoppel, Angelyn Dries, A. J. Droge, Francis X. D'Sa, Marilyn Dunn, Nicole Wilkinson Duran, Rifaat Ebied, Mark J. Edwards, William H. Edwards, Leonard H. Ehrlich, Nancy L. Eiesland, Martin Elbel, J. Harold Ellens, Stephen Ellingson, Marvin M. Ellison, Robert Ellsberg, Jean Bethke Elshtain, Eldon Jay Epp, Peter C. Erb, Tassilo Erhardt, Maria Erling, Noel Leo Erskine, Gillian R. Evans, Virginia Fabella, Michael A. Fahey, Edward Farley, Margaret A. Farley, Wendy Farley, Robert Fastiggi, Seena Fazel, Duncan S. Ferguson, Helwar Figueroa, Paul Corby Finney, Kyriaki Karidoyanes FitzGerald, Thomas E. FitzGerald, John R. Fitzmier, Marie Therese Flanagan, Sabina Flanagan, Claude Flipo, Ronald B. Flowers, Carole Fontaine, David Ford, Mary Ford, Stephanie A. Ford, Jim Forest, William Franke, Robert M. Franklin, Ruth Franzén, Edward H. Friedman, Samuel Frouisou, Lorelei F. Fuchs, Jojo M. Fung, Inger Furseth, Richard R. Gaillardetz, Brandon Gallaher, China Galland, Mark Galli, Ismael García, Tharscisse Gatwa, Jean-Marie Gaudeul, Luis María Gavilanes del Castillo, Pavel L. Gavrilyuk, Volney P. Gay, Metropolitan Athanasios Geevargis, Kondothra M. George, Mary Gerhart, Simon Gikandi, Maurice Gilbert, Michael J. Gillgannon, Verónica Giménez Beliveau, Terryl Givens, Beth Glazier-McDonald, Philip Gleason, Menghun Goh, Brian Golding, Bishop Hilario M. Gomez, Michelle A. Gonzalez, Donald K. Gorrell, Roy Gottfried, Tamara Grdzelidze, Joel B. Green, Niels Henrik Gregersen, Cristina Grenholm, Herbert Griffiths, Eric W. Gritsch, Erich S. Gruen, Christoffer H. Grundmann, Paul H. Gundani, Jon P. Gunnemann, Petre Guran, Vidar L. Haanes, Jeremiah M. Hackett, Getatchew Haile, Douglas John Hall, Nicholas Hammond, Daphne Hampson, Jehu J. Hanciles, Barry Hankins, Jennifer Haraguchi, Stanley S. Harakas, Anthony John Harding, Conrad L. Harkins, J. William Harmless, Marjory Harper, Amir Harrak, Joel F. Harrington, Mark W. Harris, Susan Ashbrook Harvey, Van A. Harvey, R. Chris Hassel, Jione Havea, Daniel Hawk, Diana L. Hayes, Leslie Hayes, Priscilla Hayner, S. Mark Heim, Simo Heininen, Richard P. Heitzenrater, Eila Helander, David Hempton, Scott H. Hendrix, Jan-Olav Henriksen, Gina Hens-Piazza, Carter Heyward, Nicholas J. Higham, David Hilliard, Norman A. Hjelm, Peter C. Hodgson, Arthur Holder, M. Jan Holton, Dwight N. Hopkins, Ronnie Po-chia Hsia, Po-Ho Huang, James Hudnut-Beumler, Jennifer S. Hughes, Leonard M. Hummel, Mary E. Hunt, Laennec Hurbon, Mark Hutchinson, Susan E. Hylen, Mary Beth Ingham, H. Larry Ingle, Dale T. Irvin, Jon Isaak, Paul John Isaak, Ada María Isasi-Díaz, Hans Raun Iversen, Margaret C. Jacob, Arthur James, Maria Jansdotter-Samuelsson, David Jasper, Werner G. Jeanrond, Renée Jeffery, David Lyle Jeffrey, Theodore W. Jennings, David H. Jensen, Robin Margaret Jensen, David Jobling, Dale A. Johnson, Elizabeth A. Johnson, Maxwell E. Johnson, Sarah Johnson, Mark D. Johnston, F. Stanley Jones, James William Jones, John R. Jones, Alissa Jones Nelson, Inge Jonsson, Jan Joosten, Elizabeth Judd, Mulambya Peggy Kabonde, Robert Kaggwa, Sylvester Kahakwa, Isaac Kalimi, Ogbu U. Kalu, Eunice Kamaara, Wayne C. Kannaday, Musimbi Kanyoro, Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen, Frank Kaufmann, Léon Nguapitshi Kayongo, Richard Kearney, Alice A. Keefe, Ralph Keen, Catherine Keller, Anthony J. Kelly, Karen Kennelly, Kathi Lynn Kern, Fergus Kerr, Edward Kessler, George Kilcourse, Heup Young Kim, Kim Sung-Hae, Kim Yong-Bock, Kim Yung Suk, Richard King, Thomas M. King, Robert M. Kingdon, Ross Kinsler, Hans G. Kippenberg, Cheryl A. Kirk-Duggan, Clifton Kirkpatrick, Leonid Kishkovsky, Nadieszda Kizenko, Jeffrey Klaiber, Hans-Josef Klauck, Sidney Knight, Samuel Kobia, Robert Kolb, Karla Ann Koll, Heikki Kotila, Donald Kraybill, Philip D. W. Krey, Yves Krumenacker, Jeffrey Kah-Jin Kuan, Simanga R. Kumalo, Peter Kuzmic, Simon Shui-Man Kwan, Kwok Pui-lan, André LaCocque, Stephen E. Lahey, John Tsz Pang Lai, Emiel Lamberts, Armando Lampe, Craig Lampe, Beverly J. Lanzetta, Eve LaPlante, Lizette Larson-Miller, Ariel Bybee Laughton, Leonard Lawlor, Bentley Layton, Robin A. Leaver, Karen Lebacqz, Archie Chi Chung Lee, Marilyn J. Legge, Hervé LeGrand, D. L. LeMahieu, Raymond Lemieux, Bill J. Leonard, Ellen M. Leonard, Outi Leppä, Jean Lesaulnier, Nantawan Boonprasat Lewis, Henrietta Leyser, Alexei Lidov, Bernard Lightman, Paul Chang-Ha Lim, Carter Lindberg, Mark R. Lindsay, James R. Linville, James C. Livingston, Ann Loades, David Loades, Jean-Claude Loba-Mkole, Lo Lung Kwong, Wati Longchar, Eleazar López, David W. Lotz, Andrew Louth, Robin W. Lovin, William Luis, Frank D. Macchia, Diarmaid N. J. MacCulloch, Kirk R. MacGregor, Marjory A. MacLean, Donald MacLeod, Tomas S. Maddela, Inge Mager, Laurenti Magesa, David G. Maillu, Fortunato Mallimaci, Philip Mamalakis, Kä Mana, Ukachukwu Chris Manus, Herbert Robinson Marbury, Reuel Norman Marigza, Jacqueline Mariña, Antti Marjanen, Luiz C. L. Marques, Madipoane Masenya (ngwan'a Mphahlele), Caleb J. D. Maskell, Steve Mason, Thomas Massaro, Fernando Matamoros Ponce, András Máté-Tóth, Odair Pedroso Mateus, Dinis Matsolo, Fumitaka Matsuoka, John D'Arcy May, Yelena Mazour-Matusevich, Theodore Mbazumutima, John S. McClure, Christian McConnell, Lee Martin McDonald, Gary B. McGee, Thomas McGowan, Alister E. McGrath, Richard J. McGregor, John A. McGuckin, Maud Burnett McInerney, Elsie Anne McKee, Mary B. McKinley, James F. McMillan, Ernan McMullin, Kathleen E. McVey, M. Douglas Meeks, Monica Jyotsna Melanchthon, Ilie Melniciuc-Puica, Everett Mendoza, Raymond A. Mentzer, William W. Menzies, Ina Merdjanova, Franziska Metzger, Constant J. Mews, Marvin Meyer, Carol Meyers, Vasile Mihoc, Gunner Bjerg Mikkelsen, Maria Inêz de Castro Millen, Clyde Lee Miller, Bonnie J. Miller-McLemore, Alexander Mirkovic, Paul Misner, Nozomu Miyahira, R. W. L. Moberly, Gerald Moede, Aloo Osotsi Mojola, Sunanda Mongia, Rebeca Montemayor, James Moore, Roger E. Moore, Craig E. Morrison O.Carm, Jeffry H. Morrison, Keith Morrison, Wilson J. Moses, Tefetso Henry Mothibe, Mokgethi Motlhabi, Fulata Moyo, Henry Mugabe, Jesse Ndwiga Kanyua Mugambi, Peggy Mulambya-Kabonde, Robert Bruce Mullin, Pamela Mullins Reaves, Saskia Murk Jansen, Heleen L. Murre-Van den Berg, Augustine Musopole, Isaac M. T. Mwase, Philomena Mwaura, Cecilia Nahnfeldt, Anne Nasimiyu Wasike, Carmiña Navia Velasco, Thulani Ndlazi, Alexander Negrov, James B. Nelson, David G. Newcombe, Carol Newsom, Helen J. Nicholson, George W. E. Nickelsburg, Tatyana Nikolskaya, Damayanthi M. A. Niles, Bertil Nilsson, Nyambura Njoroge, Fidelis Nkomazana, Mary Beth Norton, Christian Nottmeier, Sonene Nyawo, Anthère Nzabatsinda, Edward T. Oakes, Gerald O'Collins, Daniel O'Connell, David W. Odell-Scott, Mercy Amba Oduyoye, Kathleen O'Grady, Oyeronke Olajubu, Thomas O'Loughlin, Dennis T. Olson, J. Steven O'Malley, Cephas N. Omenyo, Muriel Orevillo-Montenegro, César Augusto Ornellas Ramos, Agbonkhianmeghe E. Orobator, Kenan B. Osborne, Carolyn Osiek, Javier Otaola Montagne, Douglas F. Ottati, Anna May Say Pa, Irina Paert, Jerry G. Pankhurst, Aristotle Papanikolaou, Samuele F. Pardini, Stefano Parenti, Peter Paris, Sung Bae Park, Cristián G. Parker, Raquel Pastor, Joseph Pathrapankal, Daniel Patte, W. Brown Patterson, Clive Pearson, Keith F. Pecklers, Nancy Cardoso Pereira, David Horace Perkins, Pheme Perkins, Edward N. Peters, Rebecca Todd Peters, Bishop Yeznik Petrossian, Raymond Pfister, Peter C. Phan, Isabel Apawo Phiri, William S. F. Pickering, Derrick G. Pitard, William Elvis Plata, Zlatko Plese, John Plummer, James Newton Poling, Ronald Popivchak, Andrew Porter, Ute Possekel, James M. Powell, Enos Das Pradhan, Devadasan Premnath, Jaime Adrían Prieto Valladares, Anne Primavesi, Randall Prior, María Alicia Puente Lutteroth, Eduardo Guzmão Quadros, Albert Rabil, Laurent William Ramambason, Apolonio M. Ranche, Vololona Randriamanantena Andriamitandrina, Lawrence R. Rast, Paul L. Redditt, Adele Reinhartz, Rolf Rendtorff, Pål Repstad, James N. Rhodes, John K. Riches, Joerg Rieger, Sharon H. Ringe, Sandra Rios, Tyler Roberts, David M. Robinson, James M. Robinson, Joanne Maguire Robinson, Richard A. H. Robinson, Roy R. Robson, Jack B. Rogers, Maria Roginska, Sidney Rooy, Rev. Garnett Roper, Maria José Fontelas Rosado-Nunes, Andrew C. Ross, Stefan Rossbach, François Rossier, John D. Roth, John K. Roth, Phillip Rothwell, Richard E. Rubenstein, Rosemary Radford Ruether, Markku Ruotsila, John E. Rybolt, Risto Saarinen, John Saillant, Juan Sanchez, Wagner Lopes Sanchez, Hugo N. Santos, Gerhard Sauter, Gloria L. Schaab, Sandra M. Schneiders, Quentin J. Schultze, Fernando F. Segovia, Turid Karlsen Seim, Carsten Selch Jensen, Alan P. F. Sell, Frank C. Senn, Kent Davis Sensenig, Damían Setton, Bal Krishna Sharma, Carolyn J. Sharp, Thomas Sheehan, N. Gerald Shenk, Christian Sheppard, Charles Sherlock, Tabona Shoko, Walter B. Shurden, Marguerite Shuster, B. Mark Sietsema, Batara Sihombing, Neil Silberman, Clodomiro Siller, Samuel Silva-Gotay, Heikki Silvet, John K. Simmons, Hagith Sivan, James C. Skedros, Abraham Smith, Ashley A. Smith, Ted A. Smith, Daud Soesilo, Pia Søltoft, Choan-Seng (C. S.) Song, Kathryn Spink, Bryan Spinks, Eric O. Springsted, Nicolas Standaert, Brian Stanley, Glen H. Stassen, Karel Steenbrink, Stephen J. Stein, Andrea Sterk, Gregory E. Sterling, Columba Stewart, Jacques Stewart, Robert B. Stewart, Cynthia Stokes Brown, Ken Stone, Anne Stott, Elizabeth Stuart, Monya Stubbs, Marjorie Hewitt Suchocki, David Kwang-sun Suh, Scott W. Sunquist, Keith Suter, Douglas Sweeney, Charles H. Talbert, Shawqi N. Talia, Elsa Tamez, Joseph B. Tamney, Jonathan Y. Tan, Yak-Hwee Tan, Kathryn Tanner, Feiya Tao, Elizabeth S. Tapia, Aquiline Tarimo, Claire Taylor, Mark Lewis Taylor, Bishop Abba Samuel Wolde Tekestebirhan, Eugene TeSelle, M. Thomas Thangaraj, David R. Thomas, Andrew Thornley, Scott Thumma, Marcelo Timotheo da Costa, George E. “Tink” Tinker, Ola Tjørhom, Karen Jo Torjesen, Iain R. Torrance, Fernando Torres-Londoño, Archbishop Demetrios [Trakatellis], Marit Trelstad, Christine Trevett, Phyllis Trible, Johannes Tromp, Paul Turner, Robert G. Tuttle, Archbishop Desmond Tutu, Peter Tyler, Anders Tyrberg, Justin Ukpong, Javier Ulloa, Camillus Umoh, Kristi Upson-Saia, Martina Urban, Monica Uribe, Elochukwu Eugene Uzukwu, Richard Vaggione, Gabriel Vahanian, Paul Valliere, T. J. Van Bavel, Steven Vanderputten, Peter Van der Veer, Huub Van de Sandt, Louis Van Tongeren, Luke A. Veronis, Noel Villalba, Ramón Vinke, Tim Vivian, David Voas, Elena Volkova, Katharina von Kellenbach, Elina Vuola, Timothy Wadkins, Elaine M. Wainwright, Randi Jones Walker, Dewey D. Wallace, Jerry Walls, Michael J. Walsh, Philip Walters, Janet Walton, Jonathan L. Walton, Wang Xiaochao, Patricia A. Ward, David Harrington Watt, Herold D. Weiss, Laurence L. Welborn, Sharon D. Welch, Timothy Wengert, Traci C. West, Merold Westphal, David Wetherell, Barbara Wheeler, Carolinne White, Jean-Paul Wiest, Frans Wijsen, Terry L. Wilder, Felix Wilfred, Rebecca Wilkin, Daniel H. Williams, D. Newell Williams, Michael A. Williams, Vincent L. Wimbush, Gabriele Winkler, Anders Winroth, Lauri Emílio Wirth, James A. Wiseman, Ebba Witt-Brattström, Teofil Wojciechowski, John Wolffe, Kenman L. Wong, Wong Wai Ching, Linda Woodhead, Wendy M. Wright, Rose Wu, Keith E. Yandell, Gale A. Yee, Viktor Yelensky, Yeo Khiok-Khng, Gustav K. K. Yeung, Angela Yiu, Amos Yong, Yong Ting Jin, You Bin, Youhanna Nessim Youssef, Eliana Yunes, Robert Michael Zaller, Valarie H. Ziegler, Barbara Brown Zikmund, Joyce Ann Zimmerman, Aurora Zlotnik, Zhuo Xinping
- Edited by Daniel Patte, Vanderbilt University, Tennessee
-
- Book:
- The Cambridge Dictionary of Christianity
- Published online:
- 05 August 2012
- Print publication:
- 20 September 2010, pp xi-xliv
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