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9 - Friendships in Childhood
- from Part III - Relationships across the Life Span
- Edited by Anita L. Vangelisti, University of Texas, Austin, Daniel Perlman, University of North Carolina, Greensboro
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- Book:
- The Cambridge Handbook of Personal Relationships
- Published online:
- 11 June 2018
- Print publication:
- 21 June 2018, pp 119-134
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Summary
This chapter focuses on the importance of social cognitive research in intimate relationship contexts, and the way in which this contributes meaningfully to other scientific domains. We begin by touching upon the historic emergence of social cognitive research in the field of intimate relationships. We then outline a general social cognitive model from which to study intimate relationships, focusing on the nature and structure of lay relationship theories, and the reciprocal relationship between emotions and relationship cognitions. Research regarding the bias and accuracy of relationship judgements is then discussed, incorporating arguments from an evolutionary psychological standpoint. A proposed solution to the apparent conundrum at the heart of this work is proposed through introduction of two concepts, namely: directional bias and tracking accuracy. We then outline the nature of attachment working models, contrasting dimensional versus hierarchical approaches. The contribution of these models to explanations, predictions, and behavioural regulation attempts within relationships is then explored, with reference to both conscious and unconscious levels of processing. Finally, we examine mate selection, focusing on the contributions of evolved dispositional states and environmental contexts, with reference to the Big Three categories of mate selection criteria (warmth–trustworthiness, attractiveness–vitality, and status–resources).
Contributors
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- By Magdalena Anitescu, Charles E. Argoff, Arash Asher, Nyla Azam, Nomen Azeem, Sachin K. Bansal, Jose E. Barreto, Rodrigo A Benavides, Niteesh Bharara, Justin B. Boge, Robert B. Bolash, Thomas K. Bond, Christopher Centeno, Zachariah W. Chambers, Jonathan Chang, Grace Chen, Hamilton Chen, Jeffry Chen, Jianguo Cheng, Natalia Covarrubias, Claire J. Creutzfeldt, Gulshan Doulatram, Amirpasha Ehsan, Ike Eriator, Jeff Ericksen, Mark Etscheidt, Frank J. E. Falco, Jack Fu, Timothy Furnish, Annemarie E. Gallagher, Kingsuk Ganguly, Eugene Garvin, Cliff Gevirtz, Scott E. Glaser, Brandon J. Goff, Harry J. Gould, Christine Greco, Jay S. Grider, Maged Guirguis, Qiao Guo, Justin Hata, John Hau, Garett J. Helber, Eric R. Helm, Lori Hill Marshall, Dean Hommer, Jeffrey Hopcian, Eric S. Hsu, Jakun Ing, Tracy P. Jackson, Gaurav Jain, Chrystina Jeter, Alan David Kaye, James Kelly, Soorena Khojasteh, Ankur Khosla, Daniel Krashin, Monika A. Krzyzek, Prasad Lakshminarasimhiah, Steven Michael Lampert, Garrett LaSalle, Quan D. Le, Ankit Maheshwari, Edward R. Mariano, Joaquin Maury, John P. McCallin, John Michels, Natalia Murinova, Narendren Narayanasamy, Rebekah L. Nilson, Elliot Palmer, Vikram B. Patel, Devin Peck, Donald B. Penzien, Danielle Perret Karimi, Tilak Raj, Michael R. Rasmussen, Mohit Rastogi, Rahul Rastogi, Nashaat N. Rizk, Rinoo V. Shah, Paul A. Sloan, Julian Sosner, A. Raj Swain, Minyi Tan, Natacha Telusca, Santhosh A. Thomas, Andrea Trescot, Michael Truong, Jason Tucker, Richard D. Urman, Brandon A. Van Noord, Nihir Waghela, Irene Wu, Jiang Wu, Jijun Xu, Jinghui Xie, William Yancey
- Edited by Alan David Kaye, Louisiana State University, Rinoo V. Shah
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- Book:
- Case Studies in Pain Management
- Published online:
- 05 October 2014
- Print publication:
- 16 October 2014, pp xi-xv
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A model of growth, pregnancy and lactation in the red deer
- I. VETHARANIAM, D. R. STEVENS, G. W. ASHER, S. J. R. WOODWARD, J. A. ARCHER, M. D. ROLLO
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- Journal:
- The Journal of Agricultural Science / Volume 147 / Issue 3 / June 2009
- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 03 March 2009, pp. 253-272
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- Article
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A model of the growth, pregnancy and lactation of red deer was developed for incorporation into a whole-farm systems model in order to improve the understanding of venison supply systems. The model estimates the level of metabolic demand for a deer, which depends on the maximum capacity of its tissues to use energy. A function that takes account of satiation signals and rumen capacity is used to convert the metabolic demand into an estimate of the deer's forage intake demand, which can be used as an input into a foraging model. The actual energy intake of the deer is subsequently used to predict live weight (LW), body condition score, foetal growth and gestation length in pregnant hinds, and milk yield in lactating hinds. In order to make these predictions, the model requires inputs that include values for mean daily temperature, mean daily wind speed, day length and season, as well as pasture quality. Values for model parameters were obtained from the literature, rather than by fitting to data, and model predictions were then compared with measurements obtained in independent trials.
In simulations, the model predicted that 152-day-old stags and hinds, weighing, respectively, 44 and 48 kg, would grow to, respectively, 106 and 90 kg when 517 days old, compared with trial results of, respectively, 103 and 84 kg. Predictions for the weight of pregnant hinds, gestation length and calf birth weight compared well with an experiment for hinds on a high plane of nutrition but poorly for hinds on medium and low planes. Weekly predictions of hind LWs for days 132–230 of pregnancy had respective residual means of 0·08, 6·2 and 8·5 kg, and respective residual standard deviations of 1·33, 4·6 and 5·2 kg for the high, medium and low nutritional planes. Predicted gestation length for high, medium and low planes of nutrition were, respectively, 231·5, 238·0 and 242·0 days compared with experimental values of, respectively, 231·3, 234·7 and 239·2 days, while predicted birth weights were, respectively, 8·5, 8·3 and 8·9 kg compared with measured values of, respectively, 8·4, 9·5 and 9·3 kg. Predicted calf growth from birth to 14 weeks agreed well with data (residual mean and standard deviation being 0·04 and 1·15 kg, respectively).
The existing software structure of the whole-farm model dictated that the deer model use the Euler method with a fixed, daily time step. Therefore, the model was constructed using difference (rather than differential) equations and used a traditional, energy-balance method for predicting growth. This empirical approach tacitly imposed a standard body composition and standard metabolic rate for adults, with values corresponding to well-fed deer. This does not cater for variation in body composition and metabolic activity, and in retrospect, caused the model to perform poorly for the medium and low nutritional regimes.
10 - Dimensions of Children's Friendship Adjustment: Implications for Understanding Loneliness
- Edited by Ken J. Rotenberg, Keele University, Shelley Hymel, University of British Columbia, Vancouver
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- Book:
- Loneliness in Childhood and Adolescence
- Published online:
- 13 October 2009
- Print publication:
- 28 June 1999, pp 201-222
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- Chapter
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Summary
Friends are hard to get for me
If you were me, you would see
But since you're not me, you can't see
A friend is hard to get for me
Friends are wise
Friends are guys
Friends are cool
Friends are not cruel
If I had a friend
I would recommend
friends for any other friend
Chad, the 10-year-old boy who wrote this opening verse in response to a routine class writing assignment, is lonely. Chad is not unpopular with his classmates. However, Chad's best friend moved away over the summer and, although it is December, Chad has not formed a comparable friendship with anyone else. According to his teacher, several of Chad's classmates are fond of him and have made social overtures, but thus far none of these potential relationships has taken root. As a consequence, far from the energetic and happy child of last year, this year Chad is frustrated or sad much of the day. Chad's teacher believes that Chad's loneliness has compromised his schoolwork, and she is worried enough to have recommended him to the school psychologist for counseling.
The fact that children experience loneliness when things are not going well in their friendships is evident to anyone who has ever attempted to console a child in Chad's circumstances. Yet, only recently have researchers directly addressed friendship as a factor in children's loneliness, or for that matter, children's friendships more generally (see Bigelow, Tesson, & Lewko, 1996; Bukowski et al., 1996; Gottman & Parker, 1986; Laursen, 1993). Instead, most attention has been given to studying loneliness in relation to children's general acceptance versus rejection from social groups.