¹ Valéry, Paul, Variétés (Paris: NRF, 1924), 24Google Scholar.

² Kent, John, The Internationalization of Colonialism: Britain, France, and Black Africa 1939–1956 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992), 143–51Google Scholar.

³ Hansen, Peo and Johnson, Stefa, Eurafrica: The Untold History of European Integration and Colonialism (London: Bloomsbury, 2014)CrossRefGoogle Scholar. See also MBitsch, arie-Thérèse and Bossuat, Gérard, eds., L'Europe unie et l'Afrique. De l'idée d'Eurafrique à la convention de Lomé I (Brussels: Bruylant, 2005)Google Scholar; Moser, Thomas, Europäische Integration, Dekolonisation, Eurafrika. Eine historische Analyse über die Entstehungsbedingungen der Eurafrikanischen Gemeinschaft von der Weltwirtschaftskrise bis zum Jaunde-Vertrag, 1929–1963 (Baden-Baden: Nomos Verlagsgesellschaft, 2000)Google Scholar; Montarsolo, Yves, L'Eurafrique. Contrepoint de l'idée d'Europe. Le cas français de la fin de la Deuxième Guerre mondiale aux négociations des traités de Rome (Aix-en-Provence: Publications de l'Université de Provence, 2010)Google Scholar; Linigier-Goumaz, Max, Eurafrique. Utopie ou réalité? (Yaoundé: Éditions CLE, 1972)Google Scholar.

⁴ Hansen, Peo, ‘In the Name of Europe’, Race and Class 45, no. 3 (2004): 52Google Scholar; Hansen, Peo, ‘European Integration, European Identity and the Colonial Connection’, European Journal of Social Theory 5, no. 4 (2002), 483–98Google Scholar; Rebecca Adler-Nissen and Ulrik Pram Gad, eds., European Integration and Postcolonial Sovereignty Game: The EU Overseas Countries and Territories (London: Routledge, 2012); Marks, Gary, ‘Europe and its Empires: From Rome to the European Union’, Journal of Common Market Studies 50, no. 6 (2012), 207–34Google Scholar and in response: Hansen, Peo and Jonsson, Stefan, ‘Imperial Origins of European Integration and the Case of Eurafrica: A Reply to Gary Marks, “Europe and its Empires”’, Journal of Common Market Studies 50, no. 6 (2012), 79–112Google Scholar.

⁵ Westad, Odd Arne, The Cold War: A World History (New York: Basic Books, 2017)Google Scholar.

⁶ Conrad, Sébastian, ‘Conjonctures mondiales: la nouvelle fabrique de l'histoire européenne’, Annales, Histoire, Sciences Sociales 76, no. 4 (2021), 685–700: 693Google Scholar. For global perspectives on European history, see Werner, Michael, ‘Décentrer l'histoire européenne par les marges: visions plurielles d'une modernité fragmentée’, Annales. Histoire, Sciences Sociales 76, no. 4 (2021), 669–83CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Evans, Richard J., ‘Histoires globales de l'Europe contemporaine’, Annales. Histoire, Sciences Sociales 76, no. 4 (2021), 803–10Google Scholar; Sawyer, Stephen W., ‘Déglobaliser l'histoire globale de l'Europe’, Annales. Histoire, Sciences Sociales 76, no. 4 (2021), 775–85Google Scholar.

⁷ For a synthesis on this question, see Sébastien Guigner, ‘L'institutionnalisation d'un espace européen de la santé: entre intégration et européanisation’ (Doctoral diss., Rennes 1, 2008), 65.

⁸ Randall, Ed, ‘European Health Policy with and without Design: Serendipity, Tragedy and the Future of EU Health Policy’, Policy Studies 21, no. 2 (2000), 133–64Google Scholar; Greer, Scott L., ‘Uninvited Europeanization: Neofunctionalism and the EU in Health Policy’, Journal of European Public Policy 13, no. 1 (2006), 134–52Google Scholar; Steffen, Monika, ed., Health Governance in Europe: Issues, Challenges and Theories (New York: Routledge, 2005)Google Scholar.

⁹ Chorev, Nistan, The World Health Organization between North and South (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2012)Google Scholar; Packard, Randall, A History of Global Health: Interventions into the Lives of Other Peoples (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2016)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Cueto, Marcos, Brown, Theodore and Fee, Elisabeth, The World Health Organization: A History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2019)Google Scholar.

¹⁰ This perspective remained dominant until the 1970s, with the election of Halfdan Malher, a promoter of social medicine, as the institution's Director General, and the Alma Ata conference in 1978, which stressed the importance of primary health care. Marcos Cueto, ‘The Origins of Primary Health Care and Selective Primary Health Care’, American Journal of Public Health 94, no. 11 (2004): 1864–74.

¹¹ Yves Beigbeider, L'Organisation Mondiale de la Santé (Genève: Graduate Institute Publications, 1995), 9–28.

¹² Sebastian Conrad, What is Global History? (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2016), 11. Dipesh Chakrabarty, Provincializing Europe: Postcolonial Thought and Historical Difference (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2000); Klaus Patel, ‘Provincialising European Union: Co-Operation and Integration in Europe in a Historical Perspective’, Contemporary European History 22, no. 4 (2013), 649–73. On how the Cold War shaped international health politics, see Socrates Litsios, ‘Malaria Control, the Cold War and the Postwar Reorganization of International Assistance’, Medical Anthropology 17, no. 3 (1997), 255–78; Erez Manela, ‘A Pox on Your Narrative: Writing Disease Control into Cold War History’, Diplomatic History 34, no. 2 (2010), 299–323.

¹³ These were in fact global issues, but ones that were relegated to the background in developing countries, where attention was focused on infectious diseases and child mortality.

¹⁴ Giaccobbi to Bidault, 17 Mar. 1945. Kent, Internationalization of Colonialism, 143.

¹⁵ The OHIP was founded in 1907 following a series of international conferences on health. On the LNHO, see Iris Borowy, Coming to Terms with World Health: The League of Nations Health Organisation 1921–1946 (Frankfort: Peter Lang, 2009), 21. Martin Dubin, ‘The League of Nations Health Organisation’, in International Health Organisations and Movements, 1918–1939, ed. Paul Weindling (Cambridge: Cambridge Studies in the History of Medicine, 1995), 56–80. On the OIHP, see Sylvia Chiffoleau, Genèse de la santé publique internationale: De la peste d'Orient à l'OMS (Rennes: Presses universitaires de Rennes, 2012); Céline Paillette, ‘Épidémies, Santé et Ordre Mondial. Le rôle des organisations sanitaires internationales, 1903–1923’, Monde(s) 2, no. 2 (2012), 235–56.

¹⁶ Cueto, Brown and Fee, World Health Organization, 2 and 6.

¹⁷ On France, see Frederick Aandahl and William Z. Slany, eds., Foreign Relations of the United States, 1950, Vol. V: The Near East, South Asia and Africa (Document 944, Policy Statement Prepared in the Department of State, Washington, 11 Sept. 1950) (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office). On Italy, see Frédéric Attal, ‘La diplomazia culturale statunitense e il Mezzogiorno negli anni Cinquanta’, in Filosofia civile e crisi della ragione. Croce filosofo europeo, eds. Alfonso Musci and Raffaele Russo (Rome: Edizioni di storia e letteratura, 2016), 243–54.

¹⁸ Everett Gleason and Fredrick Aandahl, eds., Foreign Relations of the United States, 1950, Vol. II: The United Nations, The Western Hemisphere (Document 256, The Secretary of State to the Embassy in the United Kingdom, Washington, 30 Dec. 1949) (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office); Fredrick Aandahl and William Z. Slany, eds., Foreign Relations of the United States, 1950, Vol. V: The Near East, South Asia and Africa (Document 845, Policy Paper Prepared by the Bureau of Near Eastern, South Asian, and African Affairs, Washington, 18 Apr. 1950) (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office); ‘the anti-colonial feeling in certain African territories constitutes a formidable problem for the Free World because all of Colonial Governments are aligned on the side of the Free World’.

¹⁹ Ibid. (Document 963, Memorandum by the Former Consul General at Tunis (Packer), Washington, 23 Aug. 1950).

²⁰ Ibid. (Document 859, Memorandum by the Assistant Secretary of State for Near Eastern, South Asian, and African Affairs (McGhee) to the Secretary of State, Washington, 6 Nov. 1950). US policy in this field is ‘the result of compromises reached by Interior, Defense and State, and therefore reflect what is practical, what is safe, and what is right, and diplomatically expedient’, in Stanley Shaloff, Paul Claussen, John Glennon, Harriet Schwar and Rita Baker, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1955–1957, Vol. XVIII: Africa (Document 3, Memorandum from the Assistant Secretary of State for International Organization Affairs (Key) to Deputy Under Secretary of State (Murphy), Washington, 20 Apr. 1955) (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office).

²¹ Kent, Internationalization of Colonialism, 137.

²² David Van Reybrouck, Revolusi. L'Indonésie et la naissance du monde moderne (Paris: Actes Sud, 2022 [2020]), 421–29.

²³ Aandahl and Slany, eds., Foreign, 1950: Vol. V (Document 968, The Consul General at Tunis (Jernegan) to the Secretary of State, Tunis, 21 Nov. 1950) (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office).

²⁴ Cueto, Brown and Fee, World Health Organization, 40.

²⁵ Kent, Internationalization of Colonialism. 9, 135, 264; Instruction given to the French delegation to the second World Health Assembly in Rome, June 1949, Archives Nationales de France (hereafter ANF), Box 19930242 5.

²⁶ Report written by Dr Jacques Parisot, July 1951, ANF, Box 19930242 5. On the opposite side, US diplomats derided the ‘anachronism’ of the French Empire, which they viewed as the last representative of the ‘imperialism of the old school’; see Aandahl and Slany, eds., Foreign, 1950: Vol. V (Document 858, Summary of Remarks by the Assistant Secretary of State for Near Eastern, South Asian, and African Affairs (McGhee) to a Bureau of Near Eastern South Asian, and African Affairs Staff Meeting, 24 Oct. 1950).

²⁷ Thomas Zimmmer, Welt ohne Krankheit. Geschichte der internationalen Gesundheitspolitik 1940–1970 (Göttingen: Wallstein Verlag, 2017); Borowy, World Health.

²⁸ Participation of associate members and other territories to regional organisations, WHO Archives, 1-900-1-11, 7 and 14 June 1949. Jacques Parisot to the French minister of Foreign Affairs, 1957, ANF, Box 19930242 4.

²⁹ Lavoine to Bernard, 8 Oct. 1952, ANF, Box 19930242 7. Emphasis in the original text. See also the report written by Dr Lavoine, 12 Nov. 1952, ANF, Box 19930242 7. In 1944 and 1945, the government of Free France had already been invited on several occasions to participate in the work of the Anglo-American Caribbean Commission but had declined out of fear that the poor economic situation of the French West Indies would make a bad impression on the international stage. Kent, Internationalization of Colonialism, 142.

³⁰ Report by Docteur Floch Hervé, 1950, ANF, Box 19930242 7.

³¹ For instance, the French industry was lagging behind, with higher prices than those of the competition from the Netherlands and Britain as well as Germany and Switzerland. Report of the French delegation to the XIVth Pan-American Sanitary Conference, ANF, Box 19930242 7.

³² Marcos Cueto, The Value of Health: A History of the Pan American Health Organization (Rochester: University of Rochester Press, 2007).

³³ Memorandum on the relationship between France and the Pan-American Sanitary Bureau, ANF, Box 19930242 7; Instructions for the French delegation to the XIVth Pan-American Sanitary Conference, 1954, ANF, Box 19930242 7.1.

³⁴ For instance, the Department of State's line on the Dutch Indies and Surinam was merely to ‘ensure political stability […] [and] to ensure that the flow of strategic materials from this area to the United States continues without interruption’; Everett Gleason and Fredrick Aandahl, eds., Foreign Relations of the United States, 1950, Vol. III: Western Europe (Document 676, Document 676, Policy Statement Prepared in the Department of State, Washington, 25 Aug. 1950) (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office).

³⁵ Cueto, Brown and Fee, World Health Organization, 77.

³⁶ Cited in Kent, Internationalization of Colonialism, 265.

³⁷ Isebill V. Gruhn, ‘The Commission for Technical Co-operation in Africa, 1950–65’, The Journal of Modern African Studies 9, no. 3 (1971), 459–69. The member states were Belgium, France, the United Kingdom, Portugal, the Union of South Africa and the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyassaland.

³⁸ Daniel Vigier, ‘La Commission de coopération technique en Afrique au Sud du Sahara’, Politique étrangère 19, no. 3 (1954): 348.

³⁹ Kent, Internationalization of Colonialism, 286.

⁴⁰ Ibid., 179–80.

⁴¹ Cueto, Brown and Fee, World Health Organization, 80–82.

⁴² Instructions to the French delegation, fourth World Health Assembly, 8 May 1951, ANF, File 19930242 5.

⁴³ Report on the 2nd Session of the Regional Office of Africa of the World Health Organisation, Aug. 1952, ANF, Box 19930242 5, File ‘OMS. Bureau Régional d'Afrique. 1950–1954’.

⁴⁴ The Financial Attaché to the French Ambassy in Rome to the Minister of Finance, 12 July 1949, ANF, Box 19930242 5.

⁴⁵ The Minister of Finance to the Minister of Foreign Affairs, 16 May 1949, ANF, Box 19930242 5. France's action was, however, complicated by heightened tensions between ministries. The Ministry of Finance wanted to pay as little as possible, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs looked for value for money and the Ministry of Public Health and Population was concerned with the country's scientific outreach. See Report of the Minister of Public Health, 24 Dec. 1949, ANF, Box 19930242 7.

⁴⁶ J. Sundin and S. Willner, Social Change and Health in Sweden: 250 Years of Politics and Practice (Solna: Swedish National Institute of Public Health, 2007).

⁴⁷ Horton R. Offline, ‘Sweden Seeks a Renaissance in Global Health’, Lancet 389, no. 10086 (2017): 2272. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(17)31583-010.

⁴⁸ Ann-Sofie Dahl, ‘Sweden: Once a Moral Superpower, Always a Moral Superpower?’, International Journal 61, no. 4 (2006): 900.

⁴⁹ Rachel Irwin, ‘Sweden's Engagement in Global Health: A Historical Review’, Global Health 15, 79 (2019), https://doi.org/10.1186/s12992-019-0499-1.

⁵⁰ The term was first used in Alfred Sauvy, ‘Trois mondes, une planète’, L'Observateur, 14 Aug. 1952, 118, 14.

⁵¹ WHO Regional Office for Europe, Sixty Years of WHO in Europe (Geneva: World Health Organization, 2010), 4.

⁵² The WEU's member states were France, the United Kingdom, West Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Belgium and Luxembourg.

⁵³ François de Teyssier and Gilles Baudier, La Construction de l'Europe (Paris: Que sais-je, 2021); Laurent Warlouzet, Histoire de la construction européenne depuis 1945 (Paris: La Découverte, 2022).

⁵⁴ Edward Fursdon, The European Defence Community: A History (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 1980); Kevin Ruane, The Rise and Fall of the European Defence Community: Anglo-American Relations and the Crisis of European Defence, 1950–55 (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2000); R. Dwan, ‘Jean Monnet and the European Defence Community, 1950–54’, Cold War History 1, no. 3 (2001), 141–60; Claude Franc, ‘Histoire militaire – L’échec de la Communauté européenne de défense (1951–1954), ou l'impossible Europe de la défense’, Revue Défense Nationale 784, no. 9 (2015), 121–3.

⁵⁵ Alban Davesne and Sébastien Guigner, ‘La Communauté européenne de la santé (1952–1954). Une redécouverte intergouvernementaliste du projet fonctionnaliste de pool blanc’, Politique européenne 41, no. 3 (2013): 41–3; Christian Bonah, ‘L’échec de la Communauté européenne de la santé (1948–1957)’, in La mondialisation des risques. Une histoire politique et transnationale des risques sanitaires et environnementaux, eds. Soraya Boudia and Emmanuel Henry (Rennes: PUR, 2015), 93–108.

⁵⁶ In 1953, the CoE's member states were Ireland, the United Kingdom, France, Belgium, the Netherlands, West Germany, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Italy, Greece and Iceland.

⁵⁷ Léon Marchal to Norman D. Begg, 20 Feb. 1954, Archives of the Council of Europe (hereafter ACoE), Box 3286, Dossier 2804-1. The Council of Europe has two official languages, so official documents were always translated into French and English. When the English versions are kept in the archives, I refer to them; otherwise, I refer to the French versions. For the period studied, much of the correspondence and technical documents were written in French, and their titles are left in the original language so that they can be easily found.

⁵⁸ F. Seydoux to the Secrétaire Général du Conseil de l'Europe, 4 Jan. 1954, ACoE, Box 3286, Dossier 2804. See Alban Davesne, ‘Europe’, 25.

⁵⁹ Léon Marchal to Norman D. Begg, 20 Feb. 1954, ACoE, Box 3286, File 2804-1. The relations between the two institutions were settled in an exchange of letters in 1952, Agreement between the Secretary General of the Council and the Director of the Regional Office for Europe of the World Health Organization, 12 Sept. 1952.

⁶⁰ Norman D. Begg to Léon Marchal, 23 Mar. 1954, ACoE, Box 3286, File 2804-1.

⁶¹ Memorandum, 10 Aug. 1954, ACoE, Box 3286, File 2804-1.

⁶² Schmieden to Farage, 11 May 1955, ACoE, Box 3286, File 2804-2, XO75.13/614/05, R73; Note pour Monsieur von Schmieden, 5 Oct. 1955, ACoE, Box 3286, File 2804-2; Aide-mémoire sur l'action de la Haute Autorité en matière d'hygiène et de médecine du travail dans le courant de l'année 1955, 15 Feb. 1956, ACoE, Box 3286, File 2804-3.

⁶³ ACoE, CM (54) 154. Official documents of the Council of Europe have a reference that consists in (1) the name of the service producing the document (here CM for ‘Comité des Ministres’), (2) the date (here 54 for 1954) and (3) a number (154th document of the year). Informal contacts are documented; see A. H. Lincoln à M. Leleu, 30 Sept. 1954, ACoE, Box 3286, File 2804-1, SG/5/71bis. Associations were also invited to contribute on specific issues, such as the World Veterans Foundation on the draft recommendation on the treatment of disabled veterans; see Curtis Campaigne to Léon Marchal, 14 Jan. 1955, ACoE, Box 3286, File 2804-1; Memorandum, 8 Oct. 1954, H. Leleu to the Secretary General of the CoE, ACoE, Box 3286, File 2804-1, SG/P.54/242.

⁶⁴ Letter to be sent to the ministers of Foreign Affairs of Finland, Portugal and Yugoslavia, 5 Dec. 1957, ACoE, Box 3287, File 2804-4.

⁶⁵ Only Switzerland dispatched an observer to the Expert Committee, replaced by a full member when the country joined the CoE in 1963; see Léon Marchal à Max Petitpierre, 17 Nov. 1954, ACoE, Box 3286, File 2804-1, SG/P.54/242.

⁶⁶ Guigner Sebastien, ‘The EU's Role(s) in European Public Health: The Interdependence of Roles within a Saturated Space of International Organizations’, in The European Union's Roles in International Politics: Concepts and Analysis, eds. Ole Elgström and Michael Smith (London: Routledge, 2006), 225–44.

⁶⁷ ACoE, CM (54) 133.

⁶⁸ Report of the Dutch delegation, Jan. 1955, ACoE, Box 3286, File 2804-1.

⁶⁹ ACoE, CM (54) 154.

⁷⁰ Flora Tsilaga, ‘“The Mountain Laboured and Brought Forth a Mouse”: UNRRA's Operations in the Cyclades Islands, c. 1945–1946’, Journal of Contemporary History 43, no. 3 (2008), 527–45; Katerina Gardikas, ‘Relief Work and Malaria in Greece, 1943–1947’, Journal of Contemporary History 43, no. 3 (2008), 493–508.

⁷¹ The United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration was an agency that was designed to assist in the reconstruction of Europe and provide humanitarian aid to victims of the war. It was founded in 1943. On the general history of the UNRRA, see George Woodbridge, UNRRA: The History of the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration (New York, 1950); Voir Jessica Reinish, ‘Internationalism in Relief: The Birth (and Death) of UNRRA’, Past & Present 210, no. 6 (2011), 258–89 and Jessica Reinish, ‘Auntie UNRRA at the Crossroads’, Past & Present 218, no. 8 (2013), 70–97. The European Recovery Program was the official name of the ‘Marshall Plan’. Michael Hogan, The Marshall Plan: America, Britain and the Reconstruction of Western Europe, 1947—1952 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987).

⁷² Polymeris Voglis, ‘The Politics of Reconstruction: Foreign Aid and State Authority in Greece, 1945–1947’, in Seeking Peace in the Wake of War, eds. Olivier Wieviorka et al. (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2015), 294–5.

⁷³ The Danish Ministry of Foreign Affairs to Brock Chisholm, 28 July 1947, WHO Archives, 1-900-2.

⁷⁴ The Nordic Council included Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Iceland and, starting in 1955, Finland.

⁷⁵ ACoE, CM (55), 24.

⁷⁶ Ibid., 139.

⁷⁷ Ibid., 152 and ‘Statement’, Signed by Sweden, Denmark and Norway, 6 Feb. 1956, ACoE, Box 3286, File 2804-3.

⁷⁸ François Buton and Frédéric Pierru, Médecins français et épidémiologie américaine: trois générations d’échanges transatlantiques au XXe siècle, Renaud dans Payre and Martine Kaluszynski, Savoirs de gouvernement: circulation(s), traduction(s), réception(s) (Paris: Economica, 2013).

⁷⁹ Amy L. S. Staples, The Birth of Development: How the World Bank, Food and Agriculture Organization and the World Health Organization Changed the World, 1945–1965 (Kent, OH: Kent State University Press, 2006).

⁸⁰ ‘The Sanitary Problems of Europe’, by Yves Biraud, 1955, Archives Rennes, Box 595, 1258W595n.

⁸¹ Bernard Genetet, La transfusion sanguine: un demi-siècle de contribution du Conseil de l'Europe (Strasbourg: Éditions du Conseil de l'Europe, 1998), sur la quarantaine, voir SG/PA/SP (62) 5, Archives CoE.

⁸² These pertained to the development and coordination of medical research at the international, and more specifically European level. Report by Jacques Parisot, 27 Nov. 1954, ACoE, EXP/SP (54) 7.

⁸³ Some experts also intervened in the two institutions. This was the case for Jacques Parisot and Eugène Aujaleu (from France), but also for Giovanni Canaperia (Italy) and for Paul Van de Calseyde (Belgium), who worked for the WEU's Committee on Public Health, which was attached to the Council of Europe, before he became head of the WHO's European office.

⁸⁴ The fear that European integration would weaken their international possessions appears to have been founded when comparing the trajectories of Norway and Sweden; Irwin, ‘Sweden's Engagement’, 5.

⁸⁵ Likewise, the Suez crisis (1956) was a genuinely humiliating experience for France and the United Kingdom and permanently cemented the domination of the United States and of the Soviet Union in Europe.

⁸⁶ Shaloff et al., Foreign, 1955–1957, Vol. XVIII: Africa (Document 7, Memorandum from the Assistant Secretary of State for Near Eastern, South Asian, and African Affairs (Allen) to the Secretary of State, Washington, 12 Aug. 1955).

⁸⁷ Instructions given to the French delegation to the 12th World Health Assembly, Geneva, 12 May 1959, ANF, Box 19930242 5. Safiatou Diallo, Politiques de santé en Guinée. De la colonisation au début du XXI^e siècle (Paris: L'Harmattan, 2022).

⁸⁸ Hansen and Johnson, Eurafrica, 270. The Berlin Conference saw the main European heads of state divide the African continent between the colonial powers.

⁸⁹ Van Reybrouck, Revolusi, 479–81.

⁹⁰ E. de Curton to Couve de Murville, 25 May 1959, ANF, 19930242. The only European country that still possessed colonies at the time was Portugal, which at that point was not a member of the CoE.

⁹¹ H. Pfeffermann to Dr R. Vanni, 29 Jan. 1964, ACoE, Box 3287, File 2804-5.

⁹² A. J. Villeneuve to H. Pfeffermann, 9 Nov. 1964; Dr El Mavroulidis to H. Pfefferman, 13 Nov. 1964; J. de Coninck to Pfefferman, 26 Nov. 1964; Dr Schindl to H. Pfeffermann, 11 Dec. 1964; C. J. Mollenbacj to H. Pfefferman, 21 Dec. 1964; Dr J.P. Peffer to H. Pfefferman, 22 Dec. 1964, ACoE, Box 3287, File 2804-5.

⁹³ ACoE, AS/Soc IV (16) 1.

⁹⁴ Jacques Vallin, ‘La mortalité dans les pays du Tiers Monde: évolution et perspective’, Population 23, no. 5 (1968): 845–68.

⁹⁵ For African examples, see for instance ‘Methods and Problems of Civil Registration and Vital Statistics Collection in Africa’, United Nations Economic and Social Council, Economic Commission for Africa, E/CN.14/CAS.3/8, 13 Aug. 1963. For Asian examples, see Vital Statistics of India for 1959 (New Dehli: The Registrar General, Ministry of Home Affairs, 1961).

⁹⁶ Statistical Office of the United Nations, Demographic Yearbook 1962. Special Topic Population Census Statistics (New York: United Nations, 1962), 554–73. Discussing the relevance of such classification is beyond the scope of this paper. On this issue, see Geoffrey C. Bowker and Susan L. Star, Sorting Things Out: Classification and Its Conequences (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2000).

⁹⁷ Mortality trends and causes of death really diverge between Western and Eastern Europe only after the 1960s. See Guong Guo, ‘Mortality Trends and Causes of Death: A Comparison Between Eastern and Western Europe, 1960s–1980s’, European Journal of Population 9 (1993): 287–312.

⁹⁸ Anthony J. Celebrezze and Luther L. Terry, Vital Statistics of the United States, 1962, Vol. II: Mortality, Part A, (Washington, DC, US Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, 1964), 1–7.

⁹⁹ Thierry Eggerickx, Jean-François Léger, Jean-Paul Sanderson and Christophe Vandeschrick, ‘L’évolution de la mortalité en Europe du 19^e siècle à nos jours’, Espace populations sociétés 3 (2017). DOI: https://doi.org/10.4000/eps.7314. See: http://journals.openedition.org/eps/7314 (last visited 25 Dec. 2023).

¹⁰⁰ Data from the Office for National Statistics. See https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/birthsdeathsandmarriages/deaths/articles/causesofdeathover100years/2017-09-18 (last visited 25 Dec. 2023).

¹⁰¹ Deruffe Louise, ‘Les causes de décès en 1964. Résultats préliminaires’, Études et conjoncture – Institut national de la statistique et des études économiques 20, no. 10 (1965): 65–94, 80.

¹⁰² ACoE, AS/Soc (17) 5.

¹⁰³ On the CoE's role in the elaboration of national policies on aging, see Nicole Kramer, ‘Vers une coordination internationale de la politique du vieillissement: le Conseil de l'Europe et la République Fédérale d'Allemagne dans les années 60’, Revue d'histoire de la protection sociale 10, no. 1 (2017), 84–101. On the first intervention by the British delegation to put the question of the reduction of healthcare expenditure on the CEPH's agenda, see Report of the Committee of Experts on Public Health, 7 July 1960, ACoE, CM (60) 92. On the growing concern of the French government regarding healthcare expenditure, see Marc-Olivier Déplaude, ‘Instituer la “selection” dans les facultés de médecine. Genèse et mise en œuvre du numerus clausus de médecine dans les années 68’, Revue d'histoire de la protection sociale 2, no. 1 (2009), 78–100.

¹⁰⁴ Born in Berlin in 1914, he fled Germany in 1933 and lived in France and Switzerland before he was hired at the CoE in 1951. A Jewish man, he was so outraged by the German-Soviet pact of 1939 that during his exile he wrote a book on the collaboration between the Papacy and the Turks in the modern era that denounced the hypocrisy of alliances of convenience between parties that are otherwise entirely at odds. At the same time, he made no mystery of his defiance towards Washington. Hans Pfeffermann, Die Zusammenarbeit der Renaissance-Päpste mit den Türken (Winterthur: Mondial Verlag, 1946). Biographical details come from interviews with his daughter Isabel and his son Guy (conducted respectively on 5 and 14 Dec. 2022) and private documents generously passed on to me by the family.

¹⁰⁵ Memorandum by H. Pfeffermann to the Secretary-General, 23 May 1956, ACoE, Box 3236, File 2.

¹⁰⁶ Memorandum, 17 May 1963, ACoE, Box 3236, File 2.

¹⁰⁷ Memorandum, 16 Mar. 1964, ACoE, Box 3236, File 3; Memorandum on the 19th World Health Assembly, 3–6 May 1966, ACoE, Box 3236, File 2.

¹⁰⁸ Pfeffermann to Frandsen, 7 Mar. 1960, ACoE, Box 3287, File 2804-5; Memorandum by Walter von Schmieden, 9 Oct. 1957, Archives CoE, Box 3287, File 2804-4. They also made an unsuccessful attempt to give the Expert Committee the right to meet without being summoned by the Council of Ministers; Letter to all ministers of Foreign Affairs by Lodovico Benvenuti, 8 Apr. 1960, ACoE, Box 3287, File 2804-5; Pfeffermann to Frandsen, 7 Mar. 1960, ACoE, Box 3287, File 2804-5.

¹⁰⁹ Odd Jakobsen to the Secretary-General of the Council of Europe, 29 Apr. 1966, ACoE, Box 3236, File 2.

¹¹⁰ High L. Beesley to Mr Odd Jabobsen, 1 June 1966, ACoE, Box 3236, File 3.

¹¹¹ Peter Smithers to Dr A. Sauter, 31 Mar. 1965, ACoE, Box 3287, File 2804-6.

¹¹² Work of the Council of Europe in the field of public health, by H. Pfeffermann, Sept. 1968, ACoE, B (68) 63.

¹¹³ For instance, the French Decree of 13 Apr. 1972 on the noise made by automobiles retained most of Recommendation (69)1 of the Council of Europe. On the implications of soft law, see Julien Cazala, ‘Le Soft Law international entre inspiration et aspiration’, Revue interdisciplinaire d’études juridiques 66, no. 1 (2011), 41–84.

¹¹⁴ A. Sauter to Peter Smithers, 6 May 1965, ACoE, Box 3287, File 2804-6.

¹¹⁵ E. de Curton to Couve de Murville, 25 May 1959, ANF, 19930242. The only European country that still possessed colonies at that time was Portugal, which at that point was not a member of the Council of Europe.

¹¹⁶ Chorev, The World Health Organization between North and South, 110–37.

¹¹⁷ Petiteville, Franck, ‘La politisation résiliente des organisations internationales’, Critique internationale 76, no. 3 (2017): 9–19Google Scholar.

¹¹⁸ Patricia Clavin, ‘Time, Manner, Place: Writing Modern European History in Global Transnational and International Contexts’, European History Quarterly 40, no. 4 (2010): 624–40.

¹¹⁹ Emma de Angelis and Eirini Karamouzi, ‘Enlargement and the Historical Origins of the European Community's Democratic Identity, 1961–1978’, Contemporary European History 25, no. 3 (2016), 439–58; Astrid Van Weyenberg, ‘“Europe” on Display: A Postcolonial Reading of the House of European History’, Politique européenne 66, no. 4 (2019), 44–71.

¹²⁰ Gael Coron, L'Europe de la santé, Enjeux et pratiques des politiques publiques (Rennes: Presses de l'EHESP, 2018), 18. On European processes without supranational institutions, see Bastien Irondelle, La Réforme des armées en France. Sociologie de la décision (Paris: Presses de Sciences Po, 2011) and Bastien Irondelle, ‘Europeanization without the European Union? French Military Reforms, 1991–1996’, Journal of European Public Policy 10, no. 2, 208–26 and Catherine Hoeffler and Samuel Faure, ‘“L'Européanisation sans l'Union Européenne”. Penser le changement des politiques militaires’, Politique Européenne 48, no. 2 (2015), 8–27.

¹²¹ Matthias Schmelzer, ‘The Crisis before the Crisis: The “Problems of Modern Society” and the OECD, 1968–1974’, European Review of History – Revue européenne d'histoire 19, no. 6 (2012): 999–1020.