Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-8448b6f56d-tj2md Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-24T16:26:27.069Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

25 - Novel Psychoactive Substances: A New Challenge for Prevention and Treatment

from Part V - Ongoing and Future Research Directions

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  13 July 2020

By
Máté Kapitány-Fövény ,
Ornella Corazza ,
Shanna Marrinan  and
Zsolt Demetrovics
Edited by
Steve Sussman
Steve Sussman
Affiliation:
University of Southern California
Get access

Summary

In the past two decades, the emergence of Novel Psychoactive Substances (NPS) has changed the face of drug markets. Synthetic cathinones, synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists, novel synthetic opioids, tryptamines, and piperazines became popular alternatives to illicit drugs, primarily because of their easy availability, low price, and intense effects. Analogous NPS are also often misold as traditional drugs due to the often broader profit margins and lower criminal risk profile associated with them. This chapter aims to provide an overview of the epidemiology, user and consumption characteristics, toxicity, and pharmacokinetics of the most proliferate NPS, alongside an introduction to effective prevention and treatment methods for both adolescent and adult populations of NPS users.

Keywords

NPSssynthetic drugscathinonesSCRAsopioidstryptaminespiperazinestreatmentprevention
Type
Chapter
Information
The Cambridge Handbook of Substance and Behavioral Addictions , pp. 307 - 325
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2020

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Abdulrahim, D. & Bowden-Jones, O., on behalf of the NEPTUNE Expert Group (2015). Guidance on the Management of Acute and Chronic Harms of Club Drugs and Novel Psychoactive Substances. London: Novel Psychoactive Treatment UK Network (NEPTUNE).Google Scholar
Acciavatti, T., Lupi, M., Santacroce, R., et al. (2017). Novel psychoactive substance consumption is more represented in bipolar disorder than in psychotic disorders: A multicenter-observational study. Human Psychopharmacology, 32(3), doi: 10.1002/hup.2578.Google Scholar
Addison, M., Stockdale, K., McGovern, R., et al. (2018). Exploring intersections between Novel Psychoactive Substances (NPS) and other substance use in a police custody suite setting in the North East of England. Drugs: Education, Prevention & Policy, 25(4), 313–319.Google Scholar
Alatrash, G., Majhail, N. S. & Pile, J.C. (2006). Rhabdomyolysis after ingestion of “foxy,” a hallucinogenic tryptamine derivative. Mayo Clinic Proceedings, 81(4), 550–551.Google Scholar
Alzghari, S. K., Amin, Z. M., Chau, S., et al. (2017). On the horizon: The synthetic opioid U-49900. Cureus, 9(9), e1679. http://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.1679Google Scholar
Anderson, C. Morrell, C. & Marchevsky, D. (2015). A novel psychoactive substance poses a new challenge in the management of paranoid schizophrenia. BMJ Case Reports, bcr2015209573.http://doi.org/10.1136/bcr-2015-209573Google Scholar
Anizan, S., Concheiro, M., Lehner, K. R., et al. (2016). Linear pharmacokinetics of 3,4-methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV) and its metabolites in the rat: relationship to pharmacodynamic effects. Addiction Biology, 21(2), 339–347.Google Scholar
Antia, U., Lee, H. S., Kydd, R. R., Tingle, M. D. & Russell, B. R. (2009a). Pharmacokinetics of ‘party pill’ drug N-benzylpiperazine (BZP) in healthy human participants. Forensic Science International, 186(1–3), 63–67.Google Scholar
Antia, U., Tingle, M. D. & Russell, B. R. (2009b). In vivo interactions between BZP and TFMPP (party pill drugs). The New Zealand Medical Journal, 122(1303), 29–38.Google Scholar
Araújo, A. M., Carvalho, F., Bastos Mde, L., Guedes de Pinho, P. & Carvalho, M. (2015). The hallucinogenic world of tryptamines: An updated review. Archives of Toxicology, 89(8), 1151–1173.Google Scholar
Arbo, M. D., Bastos, M. L. & Carmo, H. F. (2012). Piperazine compounds as drugs of abuse. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 122(3), 174–185.Google Scholar
Armenian, P., Olson, A., Anaya, A., et al. (2017). Fentanyl and a novel synthetic opioid U-47700 masquerading as street “Norco” in central California: a case report. Annals of Emergency Medicine, 69(1), 87–90.Google Scholar
Armenian, P., Vo, K. T., Barr-Walker, J. & Lynch, K. L. (2018). Fentanyl, fentanyl analogs and novel synthetic opioids: A comprehensive review. Neuropharmacology, 134(Part A), 121–132. doi: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2017.10.016Google Scholar
Bäckberg, M., Beck, O., Jönsson, K. H. & Helander, A. (2015). Opioid intoxications involving butyrfentanyl, 4-fluorobutyrfentanyl, and fentanyl from the Swedish STRIDA project. Clinical Toxicology (Philadelphia, Pa.), 53(7), 609–617.Google Scholar
Banks, M. L., Worst, T. J. & Sprague, J. E. (2014). Synthetic Cathinones and amphetamine analogues: What’s the rave about? The Journal of Emergency Medicine, 46(5), 632–642.Google Scholar
Barratt, M. J., Cakic, V. & Lenton, S. (2013). Patterns of synthetic cannabinoid use in Australia. Drug and Alcohol Review, 32(2), 141–146.Google Scholar
Barrios, L., Grison-Hernando, H., Boels, D., et al. (2016). Death following ingestion of methylone. International Journal of Legal Medicine, 130(2), 381–385.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baumann, M. H., Bukhari, M. O., Lehner, K. R., et al. (2017). Neuropharmacology of 3,4-methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV), its metabolites, and related analogs. Current Topics in Behavioral Neurosciences, 32, 93–117.Google Scholar
Baumann, M. H., Clark, R. D., Budzynski, A. G., et al. (2005). N-substituted piperazines abused by humans mimic the molecular mechanism of 3,4-methylenediox-ymethamphetamine (MDMA, or ‘Ecstasy’). Neuropsychopharmacology, 30(3), 550–560.Google Scholar
Baumeister, D., Tojo, L. M. & Tracy, D. K. (2015). Legal highs: Staying on top of the flood of novel psychoactive substances. Therapeutic Advances in Psychopharmacology, 5(2), 97–132.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Black, C., Setterfield, L. & Murray, L. (2016). Scottish Schools Adolescent Lifestyle and Substance Use Survey (SALSUS): Drug Use Report (2015). Scotland: Scottish Government, National Statistics publication for Scotland.Google Scholar
Blackman, S. & Bradley, R. (2017). From niche to stigma – Headshops to prison: Exploring the rise and fall of synthetic cannabinoid use among young adults. The International Journal on Drug Policy, 40, 70–77.Google Scholar
Bonar, E. E., Ashrafioun, L. & Ilgen, M. A. (2014). Synthetic cannabinoid use among patients in residential substance use disorder treatment: Prevalence, motives, and correlates. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 143, 268–271.Google Scholar
Borek, H. A. & Holstege, C. P. (2012). Hyperthermia and multiorgan failure after abuse of “bath salts” containing 3,4-methylenedioxypyrovalerone. Annals of Emergency Medicine, 60(1), 103–105.Google Scholar
Bright, S. J., Bishop, B., Kane, R., Marsh, A. & Barratt, M. J. (2013). Kronic hysteria: Exploring the intersection between Australian synthetic cannabis legislation, the media, and drug-related harm. The International Journal on Drug Policy, 24(3), 231–237.Google Scholar
Brotherhood, A. & Sumnall, H. R. (2011). European Drug Prevention Quality Standards, Manual No 7. Lisbon: EMCDDA.Google Scholar
Brush, D. E., Bird, S. B. & Boyer, E. W. (2004). Monoamine oxidase inhibitor poisoning resulting from Internet misinformation on illicit substances. Journal of Toxicology. Clinical Toxicology, 42(2), 191–195.Google Scholar
Burns, L., Roxburgh, A., Matthews, A., et al. (2014). The rise of new psychoactive substance use in Australia. Drug Testing and Analysis, 6(7–8), 846–849.Google Scholar
Butler, R. A. & Sheridan, J. L. (2007). Highs and lows: patterns of use, positive and negative effects of benzylpiperazine-containing party pills (BZP-party pills) amongst young people in New Zealand. Harm Reduction Journal, 4, 18. doi:10.1186/1477-7517-4-18CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Campbell, R., Starkey, F., Holliday, J., et al. (2008). An informal school-based peer-led intervention for smoking prevention in adolescence (ASSIST): A cluster randomised trial. The Lancet, 371(9624), 1595–1602.Google Scholar
Cannaert, A., Storme, J., Franz, F., Auwärter, V. & Stove, C. P. (2016). Detection and activity profiling of synthetic cannabinoids and their metabolites with a newly developed bioassay. Analytical Chemistry, 88(23), 11476–11485.Google Scholar
Carbone, P. N., Carbone, D. L., Carstairs, S. D. & Luzi, S. A. (2013). Sudden cardiac death associated with methylone use. The American Journal of Forensic Medicine and Pathology, 34(1), 26–28.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carhart-Harris, R. L., King, L. A. & Nutt, D. J. (2011). A web-based survey on mephedrone. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 118(1), 19–22.Google Scholar
Castaneto, M. S., Gorelick, D. A., Desrosiers, N. A., et al. (2014). Synthetic cannabinoids: Epidemiology, pharmacodynamics, and clinical implications. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 144, 12–41.Google Scholar
Catalano, R. F., Fagan, A. A., Gavin, L. E., et al. (2012). Worldwide application of prevention science in adolescent health. The Lancet, 379(9826), 1653–1664.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Caudevilla-Gálligo, F., Riba, J., Ventura, M., et al. (2012). 4-Bromo-2,5-dimethoxyphenethylamine (2C-B): Presence in the recreational drug market in Spain, pattern of use and subjective effects. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 26(7), 1026–1035.Google Scholar
Caviness, C. M., Tzilos, G., Anderson, B. J. & Stein, M. D. (2015). Synthetic cannabinoids: Use and predictors in a community sample of young adults. Substance Abuse, 36(3), 368–373.Google Scholar
Cha, S.-S. & Seo, B.-K. (2018). Smartphone use and smartphone addiction in middle school students in Korea: Prevalence, social networking service, and game use. Health Psychology Open, 5(1), 2055102918755046. doi:10.1177/2055102918755046.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Champion, K. E., Newton, N. C., Stapinski, L. A. & Teesson, M. (2016a). Effectiveness of a universal internet-based prevention program for ecstasy and new psychoactive substances: A cluster randomized controlled trial. Addiction, 111(8), 1396–1405.Google Scholar
Champion, K. E., Teeson, M. & Newton, N. C. (2016b). Patterns and correlates of new psychoactive substance use in a sample of Australian high school students. Drug and Alcohol Review, 35(3), 338–344.Google Scholar
Cohen, K., Kapitány-Fövény, M., Mama, Y., et al. (2017). The effects of synthetic cannabinoids on executive function. Psychopharmacology (Berlin), 234(7), 1121–1134.Google Scholar
Cole, J. B., Dunbar, J. F., McIntire, S. A., Regelmann, W. E. & Slusher, T. M. (2015). Butyrfentanyl overdose resulting in diffuse alveolar hemorrhage. Pediatrics, 135(3), e740–743.Google Scholar
Cooper, Z. D. (2016). Adverse effects of synthetic cannabinoids: Management of acute toxicity and withdrawal. Current Psychiatry Reports, 18(5), 52. http://doi.org/10.1007/s11920–016-0694-1Google Scholar
Cooper, Z. D. & Haney, M. (2008). Cannabis reinforcement and dependence: role of the cannabinoid CB1 receptor. Addiction Biology, 13(2), 188–195.Google Scholar
Corazza, O., Assi, S., Malekianragheb, S., et al. (2014). Monitoring novel psychoactive substances allegedly offered online for sale in Persian and Arabic languages. The International Journal on Drug Policy, 25(4), 724–726.Google Scholar
Corazza, O., Assi, S., Simonato, P., et al. (2013). Promoting innovation and excellence to face the rapid diffusion of novel psychoactive substances in the EU: The outcomes of the ReDNet project. Human Psychopharmacology, 28(4), 317–323.Google Scholar
Corazza, O. & Roman-Urrestarazu, A. (Eds.) (2017). Novel Psychoactive Substances: Policy, Economics and Drug Regulation. Berlin: Springer.Google Scholar
Corazza, O. & Roman-Urrestarazu, A. (Eds.) (2018). Handbook on Novel Psychoactive Substances. What Clinicians Should Know about NPS. New York: Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Corkery, J. M., Durkin, E., Elliott, S., Schifano, F. & Ghodse, A. H. (2012). The recreational tryptamine 5-MeO-DALT (N,N-diallyl-5-methoxytryptamine): A brief review. Progress in Neuropsychopharmacology & Biological Psychiatry, 39(2), 259–262.Google Scholar
Csák, R., Demetrovics, Zs. & Rácz, J. (2013). Transition to injecting 3,4-methylene-dioxy-pyrovalerone (MDPV) among needle exchange program participants in Hungary. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 27(6), 559–563.Google Scholar
Csete, J., Kamarulzaman, A., Kazatchkine, M., et al. (2016). Public Health and International Drug Policy: Report of the Johns Hopkins – Lancet Commission on Drug Policy and Health. Lancet (London, England), 387(10026), 1427–1480.Google Scholar
Cunningham, S. M., Haikal, N. A. & Kraner, J. C. (2016). Fatal intoxication with acetyl fentanyl. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 61 (Supplement 1), S276–280.Google Scholar
Daldrup, T., Heller, C., Matthiesen, U., et al. (1986). [Etryptamine, a new designer drug with a fatal effect]. Zeitschrift für Rechtsmedizin, 97(1), 61–68.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dargan, P. I., Albert, S. & Wood, D. M. (2010). Mephedrone use and associated adverse effects in school and college/university students before the UK legislation change. QJM: An International Journal of Medicine, 103(11), 875–879.Google Scholar
de Boer, D., Bosman, I. J., Hidvégi, E., et al. (2001). Piperazine-like compounds: A new group of designer drugs-of-abuse on the European market. Forensic Science International, 121(1–2), 47–56.Google Scholar
Dean, B. V., Stellpflug, S. J., Burnett, A. M. & Engebretsen, K. M. (2013). 2C or not 2C: Phenethylamine designer drug review. Journal of Medical Toxicology, 9(2), 172–178.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Degenhardt, L. & Dunn, M. (2008). The epidemiology of GHB and ketamine use in an Australian household survey. The International Journal on Drug Policy, 19(4), 311–316.Google Scholar
Deligianni, E., Corkery, J. M., Schifano, F. & Lione, L. A. (2017). An international survey on the awareness, use, preference, and health perception of novel psychoactive substances (NPS). Human Psychopharmacology, 32(3), doi: 10.1002/hup.2581.Google Scholar
Deluca, P., Davey, Z., Corazza, O., et al. (2012). Identifying emerging trends in recreational drug use; outcomes from the Psychonaut Web Mapping Project. Progress in Neuropsychopharmacology & Biological Psychiatry, 39(2), 221–226.Google Scholar
Demetrovics, Z., Urbán, R., Nagygyörgy, K., et al. (2011). Why do you play? The development of the motives for online gaming questionnaire (MOGQ). Behavioral Research Methods, 43(3), 814–825.Google Scholar
Dick, D. & Torrance, C. (2010). Mixmag drug survey. Mixmag, 225, 44–53.Google Scholar
Domanski, K., Kleinschmidt, K. C., Schulte, J. M., et al. (2017). Two cases of intoxication with new synthetic opioid, U-47700. Clinical Toxicology (Philadelphia, Pa.), 55(1), 46–50.Google Scholar
Elliott, S. (2011). Current awareness of piperazines: Pharmacology and toxicology. Drug Testing and Analysis, 3(7–8), 430–438.Google Scholar
Elliott, S. & Smith, C. (2008). Investigation of the first deaths in the United Kingdom involving the detection and quantitation of the piperazines BZP and 3-TFMPP. Journal of Analytical Toxicology, 32(2), 172–177.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Elliott, S. P., Brandt, S. D. & Smith, C. (2016). The first reported fatality associated with the synthetic opioid 3,4-dichloro-N-[2-(dimethylamino)cyclohexyl]-N-methylbenzamide (U-47700) and implications for forensic analysis. Drug Testing and Analysis, 8(8), 875–879.Google Scholar
EMCDDA (2006). Selected Issue 3: Developments in Drug Use Within Recreational Settings. Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union. Available at: www.emcdda.europa.eu/system/files/publications/424/sel2006_3-en_69713.pdf [Accessed June 10, 2018]Google Scholar
EMCDDA (2016a). The Internet and Drug Markets. Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union. Available at: www.emcdda.europa.eu/publications/insights/internet-drug-markets [Accessed November 2, 2017]Google Scholar
EMCDDA (2016b). Report on the risk assessment of 1-phenyl-2-(pyrrolidin-1-yl)pentan-1-one (α-pyrrolidinovalerophenone, α-PVP) in the framework of the Council Decision on newpsychoactive substances). Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union. Available at: www.emcdda.europa.eu/system/files/publications/2934/TDAK16001ENN.pdf [Accessed May 25, 2018]Google Scholar
EMCDDA (2016c). Perspectives on drugs: Health Responses to New Psychoactive Substances. Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union. Available at:www.emcdda.europa.eu/system/files/publications/2933/NPS%20health%20responses_POD2016.pdf [Accessed June 05, 2018]Google Scholar
EMCDDA (2017). Germany – Country Drug Report 2017. Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, Available at: www.emcdda.europa.eu/system/files/publications/4528/TD0416906ENN.pdf [Accessed December 10, 2017]Google Scholar
EMCDDA-Europol (2017). Joint Report on a New Psychoactive Substance: N-phenyl-N-[1-(2-Phenylethyl)piperidin-4-yl]-furan-2-carboxamide (furanylfentanyl). Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, Available at: www.emcdda.europa.eu/system/files/publications/4682/JOINT_REPORT_furanylfentanyl_web.pdf [Accessed June 1, 2018]Google Scholar
ESPAD Group (2016). ESPAD Report 2015 – Results from the European School Survey Project on Alcohol and Other Drugs. Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union. Available at: www.espad.org/sites/espad.org/files/ESPAD_report_2015.pdf [Accessed October 17, 2017]Google Scholar
Euro-DEN (2015). Guidelines on when to call the Emergency Services 112 for unwell recreational drug users. Lisbon: EMCDDA.Google Scholar
Evenepoel, T. (2015). Drug helplines, online health and NPS. Presentation at the Health responses to NPS EMCDDA expert meeting, October 28–29, 2015, EMCDDA, Lisbon. Available at: www.emcdda.europa.eu/events/meetings/2015/nps-health-responses [Accessed December 20, 2017]Google Scholar
Every-Palmer, S. (2011). Synthetic cannabinoid JWH-018 and psychosis: An explorative study. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 117(2–3), 152–157.Google Scholar
Fantegrossi, W. E., Harrington, A. W., Kiessel, C. L., et al. (2006). Hallucinogen-like actions of 5-methoxy-N,N-diisopropyltryptamine in mice and rats. Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behavior, 83(1), 122–129.Google Scholar
Fantegrossi, W. E., Moran, J. H., Radominska-Pandya, A. & Prather, P. L. (2014). Distinct pharmacology and metabolism of K2 synthetic cannabinoids compared to Δ9-THC: Mechanism underlying greater toxicity? Life Sciences, 97(1), 45–54.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fattore, L. & Fratta, W. (2011). Beyond THC: The new generation of cannabinoid designer drugs. Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience, 5, 60. doi: 10.3389/fnbeh.2011.00060.Google Scholar
Fels, H., Krueger, J., Sachs, H., et al. (2017). Two fatalities associated with synthetic opioids: AH-7921 and MT-45. Forensic Science International, e30–e35. doi: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2017.04.003.Google Scholar
Forsyth, A. J. M. (2012). Virtually a drug scare: Mephedrone and the impact of the Internet on drug news transmission. The International Journal on Drug Policy, 23(3), 198–209.Google Scholar
Gee, P., Richardson, S., Woltersdorf, W. & Moore, G. (2005). Toxic effects of BZP-based herbal party pills in humans: A prospective study in Christchurch, New Zealand. The New Zealand Medical Journal, 118(1227), U1784.Google Scholar
German, C. L., Fleckenstein, A. E. & Hanson, G. R. (2014). Bath salts and synthetic cathinones: An emerging designer drug phenomenon. Life Sciences, 97(1), 2–8.Google Scholar
Gilani, F. (2016). Novel psychoactive substances: The rising wave of “legal highs”. The British Journal of General Practice, 66(642), 8–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ginsburg, B. C., McMahon, L. R., Sanchez, J. J. & Javors, M. A. (2012). Purity of synthetic cannabinoids sold online for recreational use. Journal of Analytical Toxicology, 36(1), 66–68.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gołembiowska, K., Jurczak, A., Kamińska, K., Noworyta-Sokołowska, K. & Górska, A. (2016). Effect of some psychoactive drugs used as “legal highs” on brain neurotransmitters. Neurotoxicity Research, 29, 394–407.Google Scholar
Gregg, R. A., Tallarida, C. S., Reitz, A., McCurdy, C. & Rawls, S. M. (2013). Mephedrone (4-methylmethcathinone), a principal constituent of psychoactive bath salts, produces behavioral sensitization in rats. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 133(2), 746–750.Google Scholar
Griswold, M. K., Chai, P. R., Krotulski, A. J., et al. (2017). A novel oral fluid assay (LC-QTOF-MS) for the detection of fentanyl and clandestine opioids in oral fluid after reported heroin overdose. Journal of Medical Toxicology, 13(4), 287–292.Google Scholar
Guerrieri, D., Rapp, E., Roman, M., Druid, H. & Kronstrand, R. (2017). Postmortem and toxicological findings in a series of furanylfentanyl-related deaths. Journal of Analytical Toxicology, 41(3), 242–249.Google Scholar
Guirguis, A., Corkery, J., Stair, J., et al. (2015). Survey of knowledge of legal highs (novel psychoactivesubstances) amongst London pharmacists. Drugs and Alcohol Today, 15(2), 93–99.Google Scholar
Gunderson, E. W., Haughey, H. M., Ait-Daoud, N., Joshi, A. S. & Hart, C. L. (2014). A Survey of synthetic cannabinoid consumption by current cannabis users. Substance Abuse, 35(2), 184–189.Google Scholar
Gustavsson, D. & Escher, C. (2009). [Mephedrone-Internet drug which seems to have come and stay. Fatal cases in Sweden have drawn attention to previously unknown substance]. Lakartidningen, 106(43), 2769–2771.Google Scholar
Hawk, K. F., Vaca, F. E. & D’Onofrio, G. (2015). Reducing fatal opioid overdose: Prevention, treatment and harm reduction strategies. The Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine, 88(3), 235–245.Google Scholar
Health and Social Care Information Centre (2015). Smoking, Drinking and Drug Use among Young People in England – 2013. London: Health and Social Care Information Centre.Google Scholar
Helander, A., Bäckberg, M. & Beck, O. (2014). MT-45, a new psychoactive substance associated with hearing loss and unconsciousness. Clinical Toxicology (Philadelphia, Pa.), 52(8), 901–904.Google Scholar
Helander, A., Bäckberg, M. & Beck, O. (2016). Intoxications involving the fentanyl analogs acetylfentanyl, 4-methoxybutyrfentanyl and furanylfentanyl: Results from the Swedish STRIDA project. Clinical Toxicology (Philadelphia, Pa.), 54(4), 324–332.Google Scholar
Helander, A., Bradley, M., Hasselblad, A., et al. (2017). Acute skin and hair symptoms followed by severe, delayed eye complications in subjects using the synthetic opioid MT-45. The British Journal of Dermatology, 176(4), 1021–1027.Google Scholar
Hermanns-Clausen, M., Kneisel, S., Szabo, B. & Auwärter, V. (2013). Acute toxicity due to the confirmed consumption of synthetic cannabinoids: Clinical and laboratory findings. Addiction, 108(3), 534–544.Google Scholar
Hess, C., Stockhausen, S., Kernbach-Wighton, G. & Madea, B. (2015). Death due to diabetic ketoacidosis: Induction by the consumption of synthetic cannabinoids? Forensic Science International, 257, e6–11. doi: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2015.08.012.Google Scholar
Ikeda, A., Sekiguchi, K., Fujita, K., Yamadera, H. & Koga, Y. (2005). 5-methoxy-N,N-diisopropyltryptamine-induced flashbacks. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 162(4), 815.Google Scholar
Itokawa, M., Iwata, K., Takahashi, M., et al. (2007). Acute confusional state after designer tryptamine abuse. Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 61(2), 196–199.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jan, R. K., Lin, J. C., Lee, H., et al. (2010). Determining the subjective effects of TFMPP in human males. Psychopharmacology (Berlin), 211(3), 347–353.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Javadi-Paydar, M., Nguyen, J. D., Vandewater, S. A., Dickerson, T. J. & Taffe, M. A. (2018). Locomotor and reinforcing effects of pentedrone, pentylone and methylone in rats. Neuropharmacology, 134(Part A), 57–64. doi: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2017.09.002.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jebadurai, J. K. (2012). Qualitative research of online drug misuse communities with reference to the novel psychoactive substances. Doctoral Thesis at the University of Hertfordshire.Google Scholar
Jones, M. J., Hernandez, B. S., Janis, G. C. & Stellpflug, S. J. (2017). A case of U-47700 overdose with laboratory confirmation and metabolite identification. Clinical Toxicology (Philadelphia, Pa.), 55(1), 55–59.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Joseph, A. M., Manseau, M. W., Lalane, M., Rajparia, A. & Lewis, C. F. (2017). Characteristics associated with synthetic cannabinoid use among patients treated in a public psychiatric emergency setting. The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, 43(1), 117–122.Google Scholar
Jovel, A., Felthous, A. & Bhattacharyya, A. (2014). Delirium due to intoxication from the novel synthetic tryptamine 5-MeO-DALT. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 59(3), 844–846.Google Scholar
Kalasho, A. & Vibe Nielsen, S. (2016). 5-MeO-DALT; a novel designer drug on the market causing acute delirium and rhabdomyolysis. Acta Anaesthesiologica Scandinavica, 60(9), 1332–1336.Google Scholar
Kapitány-Fövény, M. & Demetrovics, Z. (2017). Utility of Web search query data in testing theoretical assumptions about mephedrone. Human Psychopharmacology, 32(3). doi: 10.1002/hup.2620Google Scholar
Kapitány-Fövény, M., Farkas, J., Csorba, J., Szabó, T. & Demetrovics, Z. (2013a). Különbségek a szintetikus kannabinoidok és a kannabisz szubjektív hatásaiban, a használati mintázatban és a használat okaiban. Magyar Addiktológiai Társaság IX. Országos Kongresszus, Siófok, 2013.11.21-2013.11.23, p. 25.Google Scholar
Kapitány-Fövény, M., Farkas, J., Pataki, P. A., et al. (2017). Novel psychoactive substance use among treatment-seeking opiate users: The role of life events and psychiatric symptoms. Human Psychopharmacology, 32(3), doi: 10.1002/hup.2602CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kapitány-Fövény, M., Kertész, M., Winstock, A., et al. (2013b). Substitutional potential of mephedrone: An analysis of the subjective effects. Human Psychopharmacology, 28(4), 308–316.Google Scholar
Kapitány-Fövény, M., Vagdalt, E., Ruttkay, Z., et al. (2018). Potential of an interactive drug prevention mobile phone app (Once Upon a High): Questionnaire study among students.. JMIR Serious Games, 6(4), e19. doi: 10.2196/games.9944Google Scholar
Karila, L., Billieux, J., Benyamina, A., Lançon, C. & Cottencin, O. (2016). The effects and risks associated to mephedrone and methylone in humans: A review of the preliminary evidences. Brain Research Bulletin, 126(Part 1), 61–67.Google Scholar
Karila, L., Lafaye, G., Scocard, A., Cottencin, O. & Benyamina, A. (2018). MDPV and α-PVP use in humans: The twisted sisters. Neuropharmacology, 134(Part A), 65–72.Google Scholar
Karila, L., Megarbane, B., Cottencin, O. & Lejoyeux, M. (2015). Synthetic cathinones: A new public health problem. Current Neuropharmacology, 13(1), 12–20.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Katselou, M., Papoutsis, I., Nikolaou, P., Spiliopoulou, C. & Athanaselis, S. (2015). AH-7921: The list of new psychoactive opioids is expanded. Forensic Toxicology, 33(2), 195–201.Google Scholar
Katz, K. D., Leonetti, A. L., Bailey, B. C., et al. (2016). Case series of synthetic cannabinoid intoxication from one toxicology center. Western Journal of Emergency Medicine, 17(3), 290–294.Google Scholar
Kehr, J., Ichinose, F., Yoshitake, S., et al. (2011). Mephedrone, compared with MDMA (ecstasy) and amphetamine, rapidly increases both dopamine and 5-HT levels in nucleus accumbens of awake rats. British Journal of Pharmacology, 164(8), 1949–1958.Google Scholar
Kelly, B. C., Wells, B. E., Pawson, M., et al. (2013). Novel psychoactive drug use among younger adults involved in US nightlife scenes. Drug and Alcohol Review, 32(6), 10.1111/dar.12058. http://doi.org/10.1111/dar.12058Google Scholar
Kempf, C., Llorca, P-M., Pizon, F., Brousse, G. & Flaudias, V. (2017). What’s new in addiction prevention in young people: A literature review of the last years of research. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, 1131. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01131.Google Scholar
Kersten, B. P. & McLaughlin, M. E. (2015). Toxicology and management of novel psychoactive drugs. Journal of Pharmacy Practice, 28(1), 50–65.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kesha, K., Boggs, C. L., Ripple, M. G., et al. (2013). Methylenedioxypyrovalerone ("bath salts"), related death: Case report and review of the literature. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 58(6), 1654–1659.Google Scholar
Kikura-Hanajiri, R., Kawamura, N. U. & Goda, Y. (2014). Changes in the prevalence of new psychoactive substances before and after the introduction of the generic scheduling of synthetic cannabinoids in Japan. Drug Testing and Analysis, 6(7–8), 832–839.Google Scholar
Kjellgren, A., Jacobsson, K. & Soussan, C. (2016). The quest for well-being and pleasure: Experiences of the novel synthetic opioids AH-7921 and MT-45, as reported by anonymous users online. Journal of Addiction Research & Therapy, 7, 287. doi: 10.4172/2155-6105.1000287Google Scholar
Kovács, K., Tóth, A. R. & Kereszty, E. M. (2012). [A new designer drug: methylone related death]. Orvosi Hetilap, 153(7), 271–276.Google Scholar
Kovaleva, J., Devuyst, E., De Paepe, P. & Verstraete, A. (2008). Acute chlorophenylpiperazine overdose: A case report and review of the literature. Therapeutic Drug Monitoring, 30(3), 394–398.Google Scholar
Labay, L. M., Caruso, J. L., Gilson, T. P., et al. (2016). Synthetic cannabinoid drug use as a cause or contributory cause of death. Forensic Science International, 260, 31–39.Google Scholar
Larabi, I. A., Martin, M., Etting, I., et al. (2018). Drug-facilitated sexual assault (DFSA) involving 4-methylethcathinone (4-MEC), 3,4-Methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV), and doxylamine highlighted by hair analysis. Drug Testing and Analysis. doi: 10.1002/dta.2377.Google Scholar
Lea, T., Reynolds, R. & De Wit, J. (2011). Mephedrone use among same-sex attracted young people in Sydney, Australia. Drug and Alcohol Review, 30(4), 438–440.Google Scholar
Lee, H. P., Chae, P. K., Lee, H. S. & Kim, Y. K. (2007). The five-factor gambling motivation model. Psychiatry Research, 150(1), 21–32.Google Scholar
Lee, H., Kim, J. W. & Choi, T. Y. (2017). Risk factors for smartphone addiction in Korean adolescents: Smartphone use patterns. Journal of Korean Medical Science, 32(10), 1674–1679.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lin, J. C., Bangs, N., Lee, H., Kydd, R. R. & Russell, B. R. (2009). Determining the subjective and physiological effects of BZP on human females. Psychopharmacology, 207(3), 439–446.Google Scholar
Lin, J. C., Jan, R. K., Kydd, R. R. & Russell, B. R. (2011). Subjective effects in humans following administration of party pill drugs BZP and TFMPP alone and in combination. Drug Testing and Analysis, 3(9), 582–585.Google Scholar
Lozier, M. J., Boyd, M., Stanley, C., et al. (2015). Acetyl fentanyl, a novel fentanyl analog, causes 14 overdose deaths in Rhode Island, March–May 2013. Journal of Medical Toxicology, 11(2), 208–217.Google Scholar
Lusthof, K. J., Oosting, R., Maes, A., et al. (2011). A case of extreme agitation and death after the use of mephedrone in The Netherlands. Forensic Science International, 206(1–3), e93–95. doi: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2010.12.014.Google Scholar
Majeed-Ariss, R., Baildam, E., Campbell, M., et al. (2015). Apps and adolescents: A systematic review of adolescents' use of mobile phone and tablet apps that support personal management of their chronic or long-term physical conditions. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 17(12), e287. doi: 10.2196/jmir.5043CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Marrinan, S., Roman-Urrestarazu, A., Naughton, D., et al. (2017). Hair analysis for the detection of drug use-is there potential for evasion? Human Psychopharmacology, 32(3), doi: 10.1002/hup.2587.Google Scholar
Martínez-Clemente, J., López-Arnau, R., Carbó, M., et al. (2013). Mephedrone pharmacokinetics after intravenous and oral administration in rats: Relation to pharmacodynamics. Psychopharmacology, 229(2), 295–306.Google Scholar
Martinotti, G., Lupi, M., Acciavatti, T., et al. (2014). Novel psychoactive substances in young adults with and without psychiatric comorbidities. BioMed Research International, 2014, 815424. doi: 10.1155/2014/815424.Google Scholar
Martinotti, G., Lupi, M., Carlucci, L., et al. (2015). Novel psychoactive substances: Use and knowledge among adolescents and young adults in urban and rural areas. Human Psychopharmacology, 30(4), 295–301.Google Scholar
McCall, H., Adams, N., Mason, D. & Willis, J. (2015). What is chemsex and why does it matter? BMJ, 351, h5790. doi: 10.1136/bmj.h5790Google Scholar
McIntyre, I. M., Trochta, A., Gary, R. D., Malamatos, M. & Lucas, J. R. (2015). acute acetyl fentanyl fatality: A case report with postmortem concentrations. Journal of Analytical Toxicology, 39(6), 490–494.Google Scholar
McIntyre, I. M., Trochta, A., Gary, R. D., Wright, J. & Mena, O. (2016). An acute butyr-fentanyl fatality: A case report with postmortem concentrations. Journal of Analytical Toxicology, 40(2), 162–166.Google Scholar
Mdege, N. D., Meader, N., Lloyd, C., Parrott, S. & McCambridge, J. (2017). The Novel Psychoactive Substances in the UK Project: Empirical and Conceptual Review Work to Produce Research Recommendations. Southampton (UK): NIHR Journals Library. Available at: www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0095704/ [Accessed December 20, 2017]Google Scholar
Meader, N., Mdege, N. & McCambridge, J. (2018). The public health evidence-base on novel psychoactive substance use: Scoping review with narrative synthesis of selected bodies of evidence. Journal of Public Health (Oxford, England). doi: 10.1093/pubmed/fdy016Google Scholar
Meltzer, P. C., Butler, D., Deschamps, J. R. & Madras, B. K. (2006). 1-(4-Methylphenyl)-2-pyrrolidin-1-yl-pentan-1-one (Pyrovalerone) analogs. A promising class of monoamine uptake inhibitors. Journal of Medicinal Chemistry, 49(4), 1420–1432.Google Scholar
Miliano, C., Serpelloni, G., Rimondo, C., et al. (2016). Neuropharmacology of New Psychoactive Substances (NPS): Focus on the rewarding and reinforcing properties of cannabimimetics and amphetamine-like stimulants. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 10, 153. http://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2016.00153Google Scholar
Miller, M. L., Creehan, K. M., Angrish, D., et al. (2013). Changes in ambient temperature differentially alter the thermoregulatory, cardiac and locomotor stimulant effects of 4-methylmethcathinone (mephedrone). Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 127(1–3), 248–253.Google Scholar
Miller, J. M., Stogner, J. M., Miller, B. L. & Blough, S. (2018). Exploring synthetic heroin: Accounts of acetyl fentanyl use from a sample of dually diagnosed drug offenders. Drug and Alcohol Review, 37(1), 121–127.Google Scholar
Ministry of Health – New Zealand (2012). Regulatory impact statement, new regulatory regime for psychoactive substances. Wellington, New Zealand: The Treasury. Available at: www.health.govt.nz/about-ministry/legislation-and-regulation/regulatory-impact-statements/new-regulatory-regime-psychoactive-substances. [Accessed October 16, 2017]Google Scholar
Moore, K., Dargan, P. I., Wood, D. M. & Measham, F. (2013). Do novel psychoactive substances displace established club drugs, supplement them or act as drugs of initiation? The relationship between mephedrone, ecstasy and cocaine. European Addiction Research, 19(5), 276–282.Google Scholar
Morano, R. A., Spies, C., Walker, F. B. & Plank, S. M. (1993). Fatal intoxication involving etryptamine. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 38(3), 721–725.Google Scholar
Móró, L. & Rácz, J. (2013). Online drug user-led harm reduction in Hungary: A review of “Daath”. Harm Reduction Journal, 10, 18. doi: 10.1186/1477-7517-10-18.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Murphy, D. L., Lesch, K. P., Aulakh, C. S. & Pigott, T. A. (1991). Serotonin-selective arylpiperazines with neuroendocrine, behavioral, temperature, and cardiovascular effects in humans. Pharmacological Reviews, 43(4), 527–552.Google Scholar
Murray, B. L., Murphy, C. M. & Beuhler, M. C. (2012). Death following recreational use of designer drug “bath salts” containing 3,4-methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV). Journal of Medical Toxicology, 8(1), 69–75.Google Scholar
Nagai, H., Saka, K., Nakajima, M., et al. (2014). Sudden death after sustained restraint following self-administration of the designer drug α-pyrrolidinovalerophenone. International Journal of Cardiology, 172(1), 263–265.Google Scholar
Negrei, C., Galateanu, B., Stan, M., et al. (2017). Worldwide legislative challenges related to psychoactive drugs. DARU Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences, 25, 14. http://doi.org/10.1186/s40199–017-0180-2Google Scholar
Nurmedov, S., Yilmaz, O., Darcin, A. E., Noyan, O. C. & Dilbaz, N. (2015). Frequency of synthetic cannabinoid use and its relationship with socio-demographic characteristics and treatment outcomes in alcohol- and substance-dependent inpatients: A retrospective study. Klinik Psikofarmakoloji Bulteni – Bulletin of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 25(4), 348–354.Google Scholar
Nutt, D. (2015). Open letter to David Cameron, Prime Minister. www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/former-government-drugs-adviser-professor-david-nutt-writes-to-pm-arguing-against-banning-legal-10374433.htmlGoogle Scholar
Oei, A. C. & Patterson, M. D. (2013). Enhancing cognition with video games: A multiple game training study, Geng, J. J. (Ed.). PLoS ONE, 8(3), e58546. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0058546.Google Scholar
Ott, J. (2001). Pharmepéna-Psychonautics: Human intranasal, sublingual and oral pharmacology of 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyl-tryptamine. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 33(4), 403–407.Google Scholar
Paglia-Boak, A., Mann, R. E., Adlaf, E. M. & Rehm, J. (2009). Drug Use among Ontario Students, 1977–2009: Detailed OSDUHS Findings. Toronto, Ontario: Centre for Addiction and Mental Health. Available at: http://odesi1.scholarsportal.info/documentation/PHIRN/OSDUHS/Highlights_DrugReport_2009OSDUHS_Final_Web.pdf [Accessed: May 15, 2018]Google Scholar
Paksi, B., Magi, A., Felvinczi, K. & Demetrovics, Zs. (2016). The prevalence of new psychoactive substances in Hungary – Based on a general population survey dealing with addiction related problems (OLAAP 2015). IV. International Conference on Novel Psychoactive Substances (NPS). Budapest, May 30–31, 2016.Google Scholar
Palamar, J. J., Martins, S. S., Su, M. K. & Ompad, D.C. (2015). Self-reported use of novel psychoactive substances in a US nationally representative survey: Prevalence, correlates, and a call for new survey methods to prevent underreporting. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 156, 112–119.Google Scholar
Palamar, J. J., Su, M. K. & Hoffman, R. S. (2016). Characteristics of novel psychoactive substance exposures reported to New York City Poison Center, 2011–2014. The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, 42(1), 39–47.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Palma-Conesa, Á. J., Ventura, M., Galindo, L., et al. (2017). Something new about something old: A 10-year follow-up on classical and new psychoactive tryptamines and results of analysis. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 49(4), 297–305.Google Scholar
Papaseit, E., Olesti, E., de la Torre, R., Torrens, M. & Farré, M. (2017). Mephedrone concentrations in cases of clinical intoxication. Current Pharmaceutical Design. doi: 10.2174/1381612823666170704130213.Google Scholar
Papaseit, E., Pérez-Mañá, C., Mateus, J.-A., et al. (2016). Human pharmacology of mephedrone in comparison with MDMA. Neuropsychopharmacology, 41(11), 2704–2713.Google Scholar
Papsun, D., Krywanczyk, A., Vose, J. C., Bundock, E. A. & Logan, B. K. (2016). Analysis of MT-45, a novel synthetic opioid, in human whole blood by LC-MS-MS and its identification in a drug-related death. Journal of Analytical Toxicology, 40(4), 313–317.Google Scholar
Patrick, M. E., O’Malley, P. M., Kloska, D. D., et al. (2016). Novel psychoactive substance use by US adolescents: Characteristics associated with use of synthetic cannabinoids and synthetic cathinones. Drug and Alcohol Review, 35(5), 586–590.Google Scholar
Pearson, J. M., Hargraves, T. L., Hair, L. S., et al. (2012). Three fatal intoxications due to methylone. Journal of Analytical Toxicology, 36(6), 444–451.Google Scholar
Penders, T. M., Gestring, R. E. & Vilensky, D. A. (2012). Intoxication delirium following use of synthetic cathinone derivatives. The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, 38(6), 616–617.Google Scholar
Penney, J., Dargan, P. I., Padmore, J., Wood, D. M. & Norman, I. J. (2016). Epidemiology of adolescent substance use in London schools. QJM: An International Journal of Medicine, 109(6), 405–409.Google Scholar
Péterfi, A., Tarján, A., Horváth, G. C., Csesztregi, T. & Nyírády, A. (2014). Changes in patterns of injecting drug use in Hungary: A shift to synthetic cathinones. Drug Testing and Analysis, 6(7–8), 825–831.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pintori, N., Loi, B. & Mereu, M. (2017). Synthetic cannabinoids: The hidden side of Spice drugs. Behavioral Pharmacology, 28(6), 409–419.Google Scholar
Poklis, J., Poklis, A., Wolf, C., et al. (2016). Two fatal intoxications involving butyryl fentanyl. Journal of Analytical Toxicology, 40(8), 703–708.Google Scholar
Potocka-Banaś, B., Janus, T., Majdanik, S., et al. (2017). Fatal intoxication with α-PVP, a synthetic cathinone derivative. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 62(2), 553–556.Google Scholar
Prekupec, M. P., Mansky, P. A. & Baumann, M. H. (2017). Misuse of novel synthetic opioids: A deadly new trend. Journal of Addiction Medicine, 11(4), 256–265.Google Scholar
Prosser, J. M. & Nelson, L. S. (2012). The toxicology of bath salts: A review of synthetic cathinones. Journal of Medical Toxicology, 8(1), 33–42.Google Scholar
Ralphs, R. & Gray, P. (2017). New psychoactive substances: New service provider challenges. Drugs: Education, Prevention and Policy, 25(4), 301–312.Google Scholar
Ralphs, R., Williams, L., Askew, R. & Norton, A. (2017). Adding Spice to the Porridge: The development of a synthetic cannabinoid market in an English prison. The International Journal on Drug Policy, 40, 57–69.Google Scholar
Rambaran, K. A., Fleming, S. W., An, J., et al. (2017). U-47700: A clinical review of the literature. The Journal of Emergency Medicine, 53(4), 509–519.Google Scholar
RAND (EUROPE) (2016). The role of the ‘dark’ web in the trade of illicit drugs. Research brief. Available at: www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/research_briefs/RB9900/RB9925/RAND_RB9925.pdf [Accessed: June 06, 2018]Google Scholar
Reuter, P. & Pardo, B. (2017). Can new psychoactive substances be regulated effectively? An assessment of the British Psychoactive Substances Bill. Addiction, 112(1), 25–31.Google Scholar
Rodgman, C. J. C., Verrico, C. D., Worthy, R. B. & Lewis, E. E. (2014). Inpatient detoxification from a synthetic cannabinoid and control of postdetoxification cravings with naltrexone. The Primary Care Companion for CNS Disorders, 16(4), 10.4088/PCC.13l01594. http://doi.org/10.4088/PCC.13l01594Google Scholar
Romanek, K., Stenzel, J., Schmoll, S., et al. (2017). Synthetic cathinones in Southern Germany – Characteristics of users, substance-patterns, co-ingestions, and complications. Clinical Toxicology (Philadelphia, Pa.), 55(6), 573–578.Google Scholar
Sanders, B., Lankenau, S. E., Bloom, J. J. & Hathazi, D. (2008). “Research Chemicals”: Tryptamine and phenethylamine use among high-risk youth. Substance Use & Misuse, 43(3–4), 389–402.Google Scholar
Schep, L. J., Slaughter, R. J., Hudson, S., Place, R. & Watts, M. (2015). Delayed seizure-like activity following analytically confirmed use of previously unreported synthetic cannabinoid analogues. Human & Experimental Toxicology, 34(5), 557–560.Google Scholar
Schep, L. J., Slaughter, R. J., Vale, J. A., Beasley, D. M. & Gee, P. (2011). The clinical toxicology of the designer party pills benzylpiperazine and trifluoromethylphenylpiperazine. Clinical Toxicology (Philadelphia, Pa.), 49(3), 131–141.Google Scholar
Schifano, F., Orsolini, L., Duccio Papanti, G. & Corkery, J. M. (2015). Novel psychoactive substances of interest for psychiatry. World Psychiatry, 14(1), 15–26.Google Scholar
Schindler, C. W., Thorndike, E. B., Suzuki, M., Rice, K. C. & Baumann, M. H. (2016). Pharmacological mechanisms underlying the cardiovascular effects of the “bath salt” constituent 3,4‐methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV). British Journal of Pharmacology, 173(24), 3492–3501.Google Scholar
Schneir, A., Metushi, I. G., Sloane, C., Benaron, D. J. & Fitzgerald, R. L. (2017). Near death from a novel synthetic opioid labeled U-47700: Emergence of a new opioid class. Clinical Toxicology (Philadelphia, Pa.), 55(1), 51–54.Google Scholar
Shanks, K. G. & Behonick, G. S. (2016). Death after use of the synthetic cannabinoid 5F-AMB. Forensic Science International, 262, e21–24, doi: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2016.03.004.Google Scholar
Shanks, K. G., Clark, W. & Behonick, G. (2016). Death associated with the use of the synthetic cannabinoid ADB-FUBINACA. Journal of Analytical Toxicology, 40(3), 236–239.Google Scholar
Shimizu, E., Watanabe, H., Kojima, T., et al. (2007). Combined intoxication with methylone and 5-MeO-MIPT. Progress in Neuropsychopharmacology & Biological Psychiatry, 31(1), 288–291.Google Scholar
Siddiqi, S., Verney, C., Dargan, P. & Wood, D. M. (2015). Understanding the availability, prevalence of use, desired effects, acute toxicity and dependence potential of the novel opioid MT-45. Clinical Toxicology (Philadelphia, Pa.), 53(1), 54–59.Google Scholar
Simonato, P., Bersani, F. S., Santacroce, R., et al. (2017). Can mobile phone technology support a rapid sharing of information on novel psychoactive substances among health and other professionals internationally? Human Psychopharmacology, 32(3). doi: 10.1002/hup.2580Google Scholar
Simonato, P., Corazza, O.,  Santonastaso, P.,  et al. (2013). Novel psychoactive substances as a novel challenge for health professionals; results from an Italian survey. Human Psychopharmacology, 28(4), 324–331.Google Scholar
Sindicich, N. & Burns, L. (2012). Australian trends in ecstasy and related drug markets 2012: Findings from the Ecstasy and Related Drugs Reporting System (EDRS). Australian Drug Trends Series No.100. National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, University of New South Wales. Available at: https://ndarc.med.unsw.edu.au/sites/default/files/ndarc/resources/EDRS%202012%20national%20report%20FINAL.pdf [Accessed: October 16, 2017]Google Scholar
Sivagnanam, K., Chaudari, D., Lopez, P., Sutherland, M. E. & Ramu, V. K. (2013). “Bath salts” induced severe reversible cardiomyopathy. The American Journal of Case Reports, 14, 288–291.Google Scholar
Smith, K. & Flatley, J. (2011). Drug Misuse Declared: Findings from the 2010/2011 British Crime Survey England and Wales. UK: Home Office.Google Scholar
Smith, S. W. & Garlich, F. M. (2013). Availability and supply of novel psy-choactive substances. In Dargan, P. I. & Wood, D. M. (Eds.), Novelpsychoactive Substances: Classification, Pharmacology and Toxicology. Elsevier, UK: Academic Press, pp. 55–86.Google Scholar
Smolinske, S. C., Rastogi, R. & Schenkel, S. (2005). Foxy methoxy: A new drug of abuse. Journal of Medical Toxicology, 1(1), 22–25.Google Scholar
Smyth, B. P., James, P., Cullen, W. & Darker, C. (2015). “So prohibition can work?” Changes in use of novel psychoactive substances among adolescents attending a drug and alcohol treatment service following a legislative ban. The International Journal on Drug Policy, 26(9), 887–889.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Smyth, B. P., Lyons, S. & Cullen, W. (2017). Decline in new psychoactive substance use disorders following legislation targeting headshops: Evidence from national addiction treatment data. Drug and Alcohol Review, 36(5), 609–617.Google Scholar
Soussan, C. & Kjellgren, A. (2016). The users of Novel Psychoactive Substances: Online survey about their characteristics, attitudes and motivations. The International Journal of Drug Policy, 32, 77–84.Google Scholar
Soussan, C., Andersson, M. & Kjellgren, A. (2018). The diverse reasons for using Novel Psychoactive Substances – A qualitative study of the users’ own perspectives. The International Journal on Drug Policy, 52, 71–78.Google Scholar
Spaderna, M., Addy, P. H. & D’Souza, D. C. (2013). Spicing thing up: Synthetic cannabinoids. Psychopharmacology, 228(4), 525–540.Google Scholar
Spiller, H. A., Ryan, M. L., Weston, R. G. & Jansen, J. (2011). Clinical experience with and analytical confirmation of “bath salts” and “legal highs” (synthetic cathinones) in the United States. Clinical Toxicology (Philadelphia, Pa.), 49(6), 499–505.Google Scholar
Srisung, W., Jamal, F. & Prabhakar, S. (2015). Synthetic cannabinoids and acute kidney injury. Proceedings (Baylor University Medical Center), 28(4), 475–477.Google Scholar
Stanciu, C. N., Penders, T. M., Gnanasegaram, S. A., et al. (2017). The behavioral profile of methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV) and α-pyrrolidinopentiophenone (PVP) – A systematic review. Current Drug Abuse Reviews. doi: 10.2174/1874473710666170321122226.Google Scholar
Stanley, J. L., Mogford, D. V., Lawrence, R. J. & Lawrie, S. M. (2016). Use of novel psychoactive substances by inpatients on general adult psychiatric wards. BMJ Open, 6(5), e009430. http://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2015-009430Google Scholar
Štefková, K., Židková, M., Horsley, R. R., et al. (2017). Pharmacokinetic, ambulatory, and hyperthermic effects of 3,4-methylenedioxy-N-methylcathinone (methylone) in rats. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 8, 232. http://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2017.00232Google Scholar
Stevens, A., Fortson, R., Measham, F. & Sumnall, H. (2015). ‘Legally flawed, scientifically problematic, potentially harmful: The UK Psychoactive Substance Bill’. International Journal of Drug Policy, 26(12), 1167–1170.Google Scholar
Stogner, J. M. (2014). The potential threat of acetyl fentanyl: Legal issues, contaminated heroin, and acetyl fentanyl "disguised" as other opioids. Annals of Emergency Medicine, 64(6), 637–639.Google Scholar
Strassman, R. J. (1996). Human psychopharmacology of N,N-dimethyltryptamine. Behavioural Brain Research, 73(1–2), 121–124.Google Scholar
Stratton, S. J., Rogers, C., Brickett, K. & Gruzinski, G. (2001). Factors associated with sudden death of individuals requiring restraint for excited delirium. The American Journal of Emergency Medicine, 19(3), 187–191.Google Scholar
Sykutera, M., Cychowska, M. & Bloch-Boguslawska, E. (2015). A fatal case of pentedrone and α-pyrrolidinovalerophenone poisoning. Journal of Analytical Toxicology, 39(4), 324–329.Google Scholar
Takase, I., Koizumi, T., Fujimoto, I., Yanai, A. & Fujimiya, T. (2016). An autopsy case of acetyl fentanyl intoxication caused by insufflation of 'designer drugs'. Legal Medicine (Tokyo), 21, 38–44.Google Scholar
Tanaka, E., Kamata, T., Katagi, M., Tsuchihashi, H. & Honda, K. (2006). A fatal poisoning with 5-methoxy-N,N-diisopropyltryptamine, Foxy. Forensic Science International, 163(1–2), 152–154.Google Scholar
Tancer, M. E. & Johanson, C. E. (2001). The subjective effects of MDMA and mCPP in moderate MDMA users. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 65(1), 97–101.Google Scholar
TEDI (Trans European Drug Information) (2013). 2nd TEDI Trend Report, Nightlife Empowerment and Well-Being Information Project (NEWIP). Available at: http://fileserver.idpc.net/library/Tedi_trend_report_feb2013.pdf [Accessed June 05, 2018]Google Scholar
Teske, J., Weller, J. P., Fieguth, A., et al. (2010). Sensitive and rapid quantification of the cannabinoid receptor agonist naphthalen-1-yl-(1-pentylindol-3-yl)methanone (JWH-018) in human serum by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Journal of Chromatography, B. Analytical Technologies in the Biomedical and Life Sciences, 878(27), 2659–2663.Google Scholar
Thammongkolchai, T., Termsarasab, P., Alkhachroum, A., et al. (2015). 5-Meo-DALT-induced cyclic myoclonus (P3.013). Neurology, 84 (14 Supplement), P3.013.Google Scholar
The New Psychoactive Substances Review Expert Panel (2014). New Psychoactive Substances: Report of the Expert Panel. Available at: https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/368583/NPSexpertReviewPanelReport.pdf [Accessed: June 06, 2018]Google Scholar
Thompson, I., Williams, G., Caldwell, B., et al. (2010). Randomised double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of the effects of the 'party pills' BZP/TFMPP alone and in combination with alcohol. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 24(9), 1299–1308.Google Scholar
Tittarelli, R., Mannocchi, G., Pantano, F. & Romolo, F. S. (2015). Recreational use, analysis and toxicity of tryptamines. Current Neuropharmacology, 13(1), 26–46.Google Scholar
Toennes, S. W., Geraths, A., Pogoda, W., et al. (2017). Pharmacokinetic properties of the synthetic cannabinoid JWH-018 and of its metabolites in serum after inhalation. Journal of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Analysis, 140, 215–222.Google Scholar
Tracy,  D. K., Wood,  D. M. & Baumeister,  D. (2017). Novel psychoactive substances: Identifying and managing acute and chronic harmful use. BMJ, 356. doi: 10.1136/bmj.i6814.Google Scholar
Trecki, J., Gerona, R. R. & Schwartz, M.D. (2015). Perspective: synthetic cannabinoid–related illnesses and deaths. The New England Journal of Medicine, 373(2), 103–107.Google Scholar
Turner, C. F., Ku, L., Rogers, S. M., et al. (1998). Adolescent sexual behavior, drug use, and violence. Science, 280(5365), 867–873.Google Scholar
United Nation Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) (2015). Special Segment, Legal responses to NPS: multiple approaches to a multi-faceted problem. Global Smart Update, Vol 14. Available at: www.unodc.org/documents/scientific/Global_SMART_Update_14-web.pdf [Accessed: June 06, 2018]Google Scholar
Ukaigwe, A., Karmacharya, P. & Donato, A. (2014). A gut gone to pot: A case of cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome due to K2, a synthetic cannabinoid. Case Reports in Emergency Medicine, 167098. http://doi.org/10.1155/2014/167098Google Scholar
Ustundag, M. F., Ozhan Ibis, E., Yucel, A. & Ozcan, H. (2015). Synthetic cannabis-induced mania. Case Reports in Psychiatry. doi: 10.1155/2015/310930.Google Scholar
Valente, M. J., Guedes de Pinho, P., de Lourdes Bastos, M., Carvalho, F. & Carvalho, M. (2014). Khat and synthetic cathinones: A review. Archives of Toxicology, 88(1), 15–45.Google Scholar
Van Amsterdam, J., Brunt, T. & van den Brink, W. (2015). The adverse health effects of synthetic cannabinoids with emphasis on psychosis-like effects. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 29(3), 254–263.Google Scholar
Van Hout, M. C. (2014). An internet study of user's experiences of the synthetic cathinone 4-methylethcathinone (4-MEC). Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 46(4), 273–286.Google Scholar
Van Hout, M. C. & Brennan, R. (2012). Curiosity killed M-Cat: A post-legislative study on mephedrone use in Ireland. Drugs: Education Prevention and Policy, 19(2), 156–162.Google Scholar
Vento, A. E., Martinotti, G., Cinosi, E., et al. (2014). Substance use in the club scene of Rome: A pilot study. BioMed Research International, 2014, 617546. http://doi.org/10.1155/2014/617546Google Scholar
Vidourek, R. A., King, K. A. & Burbage, M.L. (2013). Reasons for synthetic THC use among college students. Journal of Drug Education, 43(4), 353–363.Google Scholar
Vorce, S. P., Knittel, J. L., Holler, J. M., et al. (2014). A fatality involving AH-7921. Journal of Analytical Toxicology, 38(4), 226–230.Google Scholar
Vreeker, A., van der Burg, B. G., van Laar, M. & Brunt, T.M. (2017). Characterizing users of new psychoactive substances using psychometric scales for risk-related behavior. Addictive Behaviors, 70, 72–78.Google Scholar
Warrick, B. J., Wilson, J., Hedge, M., et al. (2012). Lethal serotonin syndrome after methylone and butylone ingestion. Journal of Medical Toxicology, 8(1), 65–68.Google Scholar
Weinstein, A. M., Rosca, P., Fattore, L. & London, E. D. (2017). Synthetic cathinone and cannabinoid designer drugs pose a major risk for public health. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 8, 156. http://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2017.00156Google Scholar
Westin, A. A., Frost, J., Brede, W. R., et al. (2016). Sudden cardiac death following use of the synthetic cannabinoid MDMB-CHMICA. Journal of Analytical Toxicology, 40(1), 86–87.Google Scholar
White, J., Hawkins, J., Madden, K., et al. (2017). Adapting the ASSIST model of informal peer-led intervention delivery to the Talk to FRANK drug prevention programme in UK secondary schools (ASSIST + FRANK): intervention development, refinement and a pilot cluster randomised controlled trial. Public Health Research, No. 5.7. Southampton (UK): NIHR Journals Library.Google Scholar
Wiley, J. L., Marusich, J. A., Huffman, J. W., Balster, R. L. & Thomas, B. F. (2011). Hijacking of basic research: The case of synthetic cannabinoids. Methods Report (RTI Press), 2011, 17971.Google Scholar
Wilkins, C., Sweetsur, P. & Girling, M. (2008). Patterns of benzylpiperazine/trifluoromethylphenylpiperazine party pill use and adverse effects in a population sample in New Zealand. Drug and Alcohol Review, 27(6), 633–639.Google Scholar
Wilson, J. M., McGeorge, F., Smolinske, S. & Meatherall, R. (2005). A foxy intoxication. Forensic Science International, 148(1), 31–36.Google Scholar
Winstock, A. R. & Barratt, M. J. (2013). Synthetic cannabis: A comparison of patterns of use and effect profile with natural cannabis in a large global sample. Drug and Alcohol Depend, 131(1–2), 106–111.Google Scholar
Winstock, A. R. & Barratt, M. (2016). Dark-net markets: the good, the bad and ugly? Available at: www.globaldrugsurvey.com/gds2017-launch/dark-net-markets-the-good-the-bad-and-ugly/ [Accessed: December 20, 2017]Google Scholar
Winstock, A., Barratt, M., Ferris, J. & Maier, L. (2017). Global Drug Survey 2017 – Global Overview and Highlights. Available at: www.globaldrugsurvey.com/wp-content/themes/globaldrugsurvey/results/GDS2017_key-findings-report_final.pdf [Accessed: October 17, 2017]Google Scholar
Winstock, A. R., Marsden, J. & Mitcheson, L. (2010). What should be done about mephedrone? BMJ, 340, c1605. doi: 10.1136/bmj.c1605.Google Scholar
Winstock, A. R., Mitcheson, L. R., Deluca, P., et al. (2011). Mephedrone, new kid for the chop? Addiction, 106(1), 154–161.Google Scholar
Wood, D. M., Ceronie, B. & Dargan, P. I. (2016). Healthcare professionals are less confident in managing acute toxicity related to the use of new psychoactive substances (NPS) compared with classical recreational drugs. QJM: An International Journal of Medicine, 109(8), 527–529.Google Scholar
Wood, D. M., Davies, S., Greene, S. L., et al. (2010). Case series of individuals with analytically confirmed acute mephedrone toxicity. Clinical Toxicology (Philadelphia, Pa), 48(9), 924–927.Google Scholar
Wood, D. M., Heyerdahl, F., Yates, C. B., et al. (2014). The European Drug Emergencies Network (Euro-DEN). Clinical Toxicology (Philadelphia, Pa.), 52(4), 239–241.Google Scholar
Wood, D. M., Measham, F. & Dargan, P. I. (2012). ‘Our favourite drug’: prevalence of use and preference for mephedrone in the London night-time economy 1 year after control. Journal of Substance Use, 17(2), 91–97.Google Scholar
Wyman, J. F., Lavins, E. S., Engelhart, D., et al. (2013). Postmortem tissue distribution of MDPV following lethal intoxication by “bath salts”. Journal of Analytical Toxicology, 37(3), 182–185.Google Scholar
Yin, S. & Ho, M. (2012). Monitoring a toxicological outbreak using Internet search query data. Clinical Toxicology (Philadelphia, Pa.), 50(9), 818–822.Google Scholar
Zawilska, J. B. (2017). An expanding world of novel psychoactive substances: Opioids. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 8, 110. http://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2017.00110Google Scholar
Zawilska, J. B. & Wojcieszak, J. (2017). α-Pyrrolidinophenones: A new wave of designer cathinones. Forensic Toxicology, 35(2), 201–216.Google Scholar
Zheluk, A., Quinn, C. &, Meylakhs, P. (2014). Internet search and krokodil in the Russian Federation: An infoveillance study. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 16(9), e212. doi: 10.2196/jmir.3203Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure coreplatform@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×