Introduction

Can the concept of culture be applied validly to another species? This chapter reports a kind of grooming shown by wild chimpanzees which seems to be a truly social custom. The example serves to demonstrate the practical pitfalls and potentials of seeking to answer the above question. The goal is to test the utility for our closest living relations of a higher-order concept originally defined for human beings. Findings from studies of chimpanzees and of Japanese monkeys force us beyond the usual hazards presented by anthropomorphism in its various forms. At the same time, these findings show that if concepts such as culture can help in the understanding of the behaviour of other species, one must avoid simplistic and sloppy extrapolation.

Gombe and Kasoje compared

As should be clear after the first three chapters, two long-term field studies of wild chimpanzees have proceeded in parallel in western Tanzania, and most of the published knowledge of the natural behaviour of individual chimpanzees comes from these. Goodall's (1968, 1986) research group in the Gombe National Park has focussed on the Kasakela community of chimpanzees, whose membership has fluctuated from 38 to 60 (Goodall, 1986, p. 80). The project begun by the African Primate Expedition at Kasoje in the Mahale Mountains, initially under the direction of Itani and later of Nishida (1968, 1990), focussed first on K-group, then later on M-group (see Figure 4.1).

For many reasons, these two longitudinal studies are ideal candidates for comparative studies. First, both are of the eastern subspecies of chimpanzee. This should reduce the chances that any differences found