References
1. Rodriguez FJ, Lim KS, Bowers D, et al. Pathological and molecular advances in pediatric low-grade astrocytoma. Annu. Rev. Pathol. 2013;8:361–79.
2. Taylor MD, Northcott PA, Korshunov A, et al. Molecular subgroups of medulloblastoma: the current consensus. Acta Neuropathol. 2012;123:465–72.
3. Louis DN, Ohgaki H, Wiestler OD, et al. WHO Classification of Tumors of the Central Nervous System. Lyon: IARC; 2007.
4. Ironside JW, Moss TH, Louis DN, et al. Diagnostic Pathology of Nervous System Tumors. London: Churchill Livingstone; 2002.
5. CBTRUS. Statistical Report: Primary Brain Tumors in the United States, 2000–2004. 2008. Central Brain Tumor Registry of the United States.
6. Rosemberg S, Fujiwara D. Epidemiology of pediatric tumors of the nervous system according to the WHO 2000 classification: A report of 1,195 cases from a single institution. Childs Nerv. Syst. 2005;21:940–4.
7. Woehrer A, Slavc I, Waldhoer T, et al. Incidence of atypical teratoid/rhabdoid tumors in children: A population-based study by the Austrian Brain Tumor Registry, 1996–2006. Cancer 2010;116:5725–32.
8. Tihan T, Vohra P, Berger MS, et al. Definition and diagnostic implications of gemistocytic astrocytomas: A pathological perspective. J. NeuroOncol. 2006;76:175–83.
9. Dorner L, Fritsch MJ, Hugo HH, et al. Primary diffuse leptomeningeal gliomatosis in a 2-year-old girl. Surg. Neurol. 2009;71:713–9.
10. Dias-Santagata D, Lam Q, Vernovsky K, et al. BRAF V600E mutations are common in pleomorphic xanthoastrocytoma: diagnostic and therapeutic implications. PLoS One 2011;6:e17948.
11. Creach KM, Rubin JB, Leonard JR, et al. Oligodendrogliomas in children. J. Neuro-Oncol. 2012;106:377–82.
12. Kreiger PA, Okada Y, Simon S, et al. Losses of chromosomes 1p and 19q are rare in pediatric oligodendrogliomas. Acta Neuropathol. 2005;109:387–92.
13. Hyder DJ, Sung L, Pollack IF, et al. Anaplastic mixed gliomas and anaplastic oligodendroglioma in children: results from the CCG 945 experience. J. Neuro-Oncol. 2007;83:1–8.
14. Seyithanoglu H, Guzey FK, Emel E, et al. Clear cell ependymoma of the temporal lobe in a child: A case report. Pediatr. Neurosurg. 2008;44:79–84.
15. Li JY, Lopez JI, Powell SZ, et al. Giant cell ependymoma-report of three cases and review of the literature. Int. J. Clin. Exp. Pathol. 2012;5:458–62.
16. Kleinman GM, Zagzag D, Miller DC. Epithelioid ependymoma: A new variant of ependymoma: report of three cases. Neurosurgery 2003;53:743–7.
17. Grill J, Bergthold G, Ferreira C. Pediatric ependymomas: Will molecular biology change patient management? Curr. Opin. Oncol. 2011;23:638–42.
18. Kilday JP, Rahman R, Dyer S, et al. Pediatric ependymoma: Biological perspectives. Mol. Cancer Res. 2009;7:765–86.
19. Raghunathan A, Wani K, Armstrong TS, et al. Histological predictors of outcome in ependymoma are dependent on anatomic site within the central nervous system. Brain Pathol. 2013;23:584–94.
20. Shakur SF, McGirt MJ, Johnson MW, et al. Angiocentric glioma: A case series. J. Neurosurg. Pediatr. 2009;3:197–202.
21. Marburger T, Prayson R. Angiocentric glioma: A clinicopathologic review of 5 tumors with identification of associated cortical dysplasia. Arch. Pathol. Lab. Med. 2011;135:1037–41.
22. Navarro R, Reitman AJ, de Leon GA, et al. Astroblastoma in childhood: pathological and clinical analysis. Childs Nerv. Syst. 2005;21:211–20.
23. Kantar M, Ertan Y, Turhan T, et al. Anaplastic astroblastoma of childhood: Aggressive behavior. Childs Nerv. Syst. 2009;25:1125–9.
24. Castellano-Sanchez AA, Schemankewitz E, Mazewski, et al. Pediatric chordoid glioma with chondroid metaplasia. Pediatr. Dev. Pathol. 2001;4:564–7.
25. Phi JH, Koh EJ, Kim SK, et al. Desmoplastic infantile astrocytoma: recurrence with malignant transformation into glioblastoma: A case report. Childs Nerv. Syst. 2011;27:2177–81.
26. Hummel TR, Miles L, Mangano FT, et al. Clinical heterogeneity of desmoplastic infantile ganglioglioma: A case series and literature review. J. Pediatr. Hematol. Oncol. 2012;34:e232–e236.
27. Gelabert-Gonzalez M, Serramito-Garcia R, Arcos-Algaba A. Desmoplastic infantile and non-infantile ganglioglioma. Review of the literature. Neurosurg. Rev. 2010;34:151–8.
28. Stephen JH, Sievert AJ, Madsen PJ, et al. Spinal cord ependymomas and myxopapillary ependymomas in the first 2 decades of life: A clinicopathological and immunohistochemical characterization of 19 cases. J. Neurosurg. Pediatr. 2012;9:646–53.
29. Hou Z, Wu Z, Zhang J, et al. Clinical features and management of intracranial subependymomas in children. J. Clin. Neurosci. 2013;20:84–8.
30. Rushing EJ, Cooper PB, Quezado M, et al. Subependymoma revisited: clinicopathological evaluation of 83 cases. J. Neuro-Oncol. 2007;85:297–305.
31. Garber ST, Brockmeyer DL. A rare case of a pediatric extraventricular neurocytoma: case report and review of the literature. Childs Nerv. Syst. 2012;28:321–6.
32. Stapleton CJ, Walcott BP, Kahle KT, et al. Diffuse central neurocytoma with craniospinal dissemination. J. Clin. Neurosci. 2012;19:163–6.
33. Hobert JA, Eng C. PTEN hamartoma tumor syndrome: An overview. Genet. Med. 2009;11:687–94.
34. Demetriades AK, Al Hyassat S, Al-Sarraj S, et al. Papillary glioneuronal tumor: A review of the literature with two illustrative cases. Br. J. Neurosurg. 2012;27:401–4.
35. Thurston B, Gunny R, Anderson G, et al. Fourth ventricle rosette-forming glioneuronal tumor in children: An unusual presentation in an 8-year-old patient, discussion and review of the literature. Childs Nerv. Syst. 2012;29:839–47.
36. Northcott PA, Jones DT, Kool M, et al. Medulloblastomics: the end of the beginning. Nat. Rev. Cancer 2012;12: 818–34.
37. Northcott PA, Korshunov A, Witt H, et al. Medulloblastoma comprises four distinct molecular variants. J. Clin. Oncol. 2011;29: 1408–14.
38. Kool M, Korshunov A, Remke M, et al. Molecular subgroups of medulloblastoma: An international meta-analysis of transcriptome, genetic aberrations, and clinical data of WNT, SHH, Group 3, and Group 4 medulloblastomas. Acta Neuropathol. 2012;123:473–84.
39. Dirks PB, Harris L, Hoffman HJ, et al. Supratentorial primitive neuroectodermal tumors in children. J. NeuroOncol. 1996;29:75–84.
40. Rorke LB, Trojanowski JQ, Lee VM, et al. Primitive neuroectodermal tumors of the central nervous system. Brain Pathol. 1997;7:765–84.
41. Visee S, Soltner C, Rialland X, et al. Supratentorial primitive neuroectodermal tumors of the brain: multidirectional differentiation does not influence prognosis. A clinicopathological report of 18 patients. Histopathology 2005;46:403–12.
42. Vogel H, Fuller GN. Primitive neuroectodermal tumors, embryonal tumors, and other small cell and poorly differentiated malignant neoplasms of the central and peripheral nervous systems. Ann. Diagn. Pathol. 2003;7:387–98.
43. Rogers HA, Miller S, Lowe J, et al. An investigation of WNT pathway activation and association with survival in central nervous system primitive neuroectodermal tumors (CNS PNET). Br. J. Cancer 2009;100:1292–302.
44. Kazmi SA, Perry A, Pressey JG, et al. Primary Ewing sarcoma of the brain: A case report and literature review. Diagn. Mol. Pathol. 2007;16:108–11.
45. Burger PC, Yu IT, Tihan T, et al. Atypical teratoid/rhabdoid tumor of the central nervous system: A highly malignant tumor of infancy and childhood frequently mistaken for medulloblastoma: A Paediatric Oncology Group study. Am. J. Surg. Pathol. 1998;22:1083–92.
46. Poretti A, Meoded A, Huisman TA. Neuroimaging of pediatric posterior fossa tumors including review of the literature. J. Magn. Reson. Imaging 2012;35:32–47.
47. Dahiya S, Perry A. Pineal tumors. Adv. Anat. Pathol. 2010;17:419–27.
48. Olaya JE, Raghavan R, Totaro L, et al. Pineal anlage tumor in a 5-month-old boy. J. Neurosurg. Pediatr. 2010;5:636–40.
49. Li G, Mitra S, Karamchandani J, et al. Pineal parenchymal tumor of intermediate differentiation: clinicopathological report and analysis of epidermal growth factor receptor variant III expression. Neurosurgery 2010;66:963–8.
50. Komakula S, Warmuth-Metz M, Hildenbrand P, et al. Pineal parenchymal tumor of intermediate differentiation: imaging spectrum of an unusual tumor in 11 cases. Neuroradiology 2011;53:577–84.
51. Fukuoka K, Sasaki A, Yanagisawa T, et al. Pineal parenchymal tumor of intermediate differentiation with marked elevation of MIB-1 labeling index. Brain Tumor Pathol. 2012;29:229–34.
52. Fevre MM, Vasiljevic A, Bergemer Fouquet AM, et al. Histopathologic and ultrastructural features and claudin expression in papillary tumors of the pineal region: A multicenter analysis. Am. J. Surg. Pathol. 2012;36:916–28.
53. Rodriguez FJ, Folpe AL, Giannini C, et al. Pathology of peripheral nerve sheath tumors: diagnostic overview and update on selected diagnostic problems. Acta Neuropathol. 2012;123:295–319.
54. Merlini L, Viallon M, De CG, et al. MRI neurography and diffusion tensor imaging of a sciatic perineuroma in a child. Pediatr. Radiol. 2008;38:1009–12.
55. Feany MB, Anthony DC, Fletcher CD. Nerve sheath tumors with hybrid features of neurofibroma and schwannoma: A conceptual challenge. Histopathology 1998;32:405–10.
56. Hornick JL, Bundock EA, Fletcher CD. Hybrid schwannoma/perineurioma: clinicopathologic analysis of 42 distinctive benign nerve sheath tumors. Am. J. Surg. Pathol. 2009;33:1554–61.
57. Keil MF, Stratakis CA. Pituitary tumors in childhood: update of diagnosis, treatment and molecular genetics. Expert Rev. Neurother. 2008;8:563–74.
58. Taylor M, Couto-Silva AC, Adan L, et al. Hypothalamic-pituitary lesions in pediatric patients: endocrine symptoms often precede neuro-ophthalmic presenting symptoms. J. Pediatr. 2012;161:855–63.
59. Kunwar S, Wilson CB. Pediatric pituitary adenomas. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 1999;84:4385–9.
60. Partington MD, Davis DH, Laws ER, et al. Pituitary adenomas in childhood and adolescence. Results of transsphenoidal surgery. J. Neurosurg. 1994;80:209–16.
61. Webb C, Prayson RA. Pediatric pituitary adenomas. Arch. Pathol. Lab. Med. 2008;132:77–80.
62. Kotecha RS, Pascoe EM, Rushing EJ, et al. Meningiomas in children and adolescents: A meta-analysis of individual patient data. Lancet Oncol. 2011;12:1229–39.
63. Suri V, Shukla B, Garg A, et al. Intracranial inflammatory pseudotumor: report of a rare case. Neuropathology 2008;28:444–7.
64. Radi-Bencteux S, Proust F, Vannier JP, et al. Intracerebral inflammatory pseudotumor in a 16-month-old boy. Neuropediatrics 2003;34:330–3.
65. Preece MT, Osborn AG, Chin SS, et al. Intracranial neurenteric cysts: imaging and pathology spectrum. AJNR Am. J. Neuroradiol. 2006;27:1211–16.
66. Hirano A, Hirano M. Benign cysts in the central nervous system: neuropathological observations of the cyst walls. Neuropathology 2004;24:1–7.
67. Caldarelli M, Massimi L, Kondageski C, et al. Intracranial midline dermoid and epidermoid cysts in children. J. Neurosurg. 2004;100:473–80.
68. Abla O, Weitzman S. Primary central nervous system lymphoma in children. Neurosurg. Focus 2006;21:E8.
69. Grois N, Prayer D, Prosch H, et al. Neuropathology of CNS disease in Langerhans cell histiocytosis. Brain 2005;128:829–38.
70. Weiss E, Albrecht CF, Herms J, et al. Malignant ectomesenchymoma of the cerebrum. Case report and discussion of therapeutic options. Eur. J. Pediatr. 2005;164:345–9.
71. Schiffer D, Cravioto H, Giordana MT, et al. Is polar spongioblastoma a tumor entity? J. Neurosurg. 1993;78:587–91.
72. Campbell AN, Chan HS, Becker LE, et al. Extracranial metastases in childhood primary intracranial tumors. A report of 21 cases and review of the literature. Cancer 1984;53:974–81.
73. Berger MS, Baumeister B, Geyer JR, et al. The risks of metastases from shunting in children with primary central nervous system tumors. J. Neurosurg. 1991;74:872–7.
74. Kochbati L, Bouaouina N, Hentati D, et al. (Medulloblastoma with extracentral nervous system metastases: clinical presentation and risk factors). Cancer Radiother. 2006;10:107–11.
75. Kebudi R, Ayan I, Gorgun O, et al. Brain metastasis in pediatric extracranial solid tumors: survey and literature review. J. NeuroOncol. 2005;71:43–8.
76. Stefanowicz J, Izycka-Swieszewska E, Szurowska E, et al. Brain metastases in paediatric patients: characteristics of a patient series and review of the literature. Folia Neuropathol. 2011;49:271–81.
77. Smith MB, Xue H, Strong L, et al. Forty-year experience with second malignancies after treatment of childhood cancer: Analysis of outcome following the development of the second malignancy. J. Pediatr. Surg. 1993;28:1342–8.
78. Vasudevan V, Cheung MC, Yang R, et al. Pediatric solid tumors and second malignancies: characteristics and survival outcomes. J. Surg. Res. 2010;160:184–9.
79. Elbabaa SK, Gokden M, Crawford JR, et al. Radiation-associated meningiomas in children: clinical, pathological, and cytogenetic characteristics with a critical review of the literature. J. Neurosurg. Pediatr. 2012;10:281–90.
80. Al Sufian F, Ang LC. Neuropathology of temporal lobe epilepsy. Epilepsy Res. Treat. 2012; article ID 624519.
81. Barkovich AJ, Guerrini R, Kuzniecky RI, et al. A developmental and genetic classification for malformations of cortical development: update 2012. Brain 2012;135:1348–69.
82. Prayson RA. Tumors arising in the setting of paediatric chronic epilepsy. Pathology 2010;42:426–31.
83. Pardo CA, Vining EP, Guo L, et al. The pathology of Rasmussen syndrome: stages of cortical involvement and neuropathological studies in 45 hemispherectomies. Epilepsia 2004;45:516–26.
84. Abramovich CM, Prayson RA, McMahon JT, et al. Ultrastructural examination of the axillary skin biopsy in the diagnosis of metabolic diseases. Hum. Pathol. 2001;32:649–55.
85. Beslow LA, Jordan LC. Pediatric stroke: the importance of cerebral arteriopathy and vascular malformations. Childs Nerv. Syst. 2010;26:1263–73.
86. Acciarri N, Galassi E, Giulioni M, et al. Cavernous malformations of the central nervous system in the pediatric age group. Pediatr. Neurosurg. 2009;45:81–104.
87. Twilt M, Benseler SM. The spectrum of CNS vasculitis in children and adults. Nat. Rev. Rheumatol. 2012;8:97–107.
88. Midroni G, Bilbao JM. Biopsy Diagnosis of Peripheral Neuropathy. Newton, MA: Butterworth-Heinemann, 1995.
89. Dubowitz V, Sewry CA, Oldfors A. Muscle Biopsy: A Practical Approach, Fourth edn. Elsevier, 2013.
90. Karpati G. Structural and Molecular Basis of Skeletal Muscle Diseases. Basel: ISN Neuropath Press; 2002.
91. Vallat JM, Vital A, Magy L, et al. An update on nerve biopsy. J. Neuropathol. Exp. Neurol. 2009;68:833–44.
92. Mellgren SI, Lindal S. Nerve biopsy: Some comments on procedures and indications. Acta Neurol. Scand. Suppl. 2011;64–70.
93. Shah M,
Mamyrova G,
Targoff IN,
et al.
The clinical phenotypes of the juvenile idiopathic inflammatory myopathies.
Medicine (Baltimore) 2013;
92:
25–41.