This chapter deals with variation in lexicon, semantics and/or discourse patterns according to gender, generation or political ideology. It will include a consideration of language changes that have arisen from a recognition of women's rights.

Language and gender

It has been argued that there are two ways that language usage discriminates against women: firstly in the way in which they have been conditioned to use language, and secondly in the way they are treated in language usage.

Women's use of language

Trömel-Plötz (1978a) has suggested that women have a lesser tendency than men to employ swear-words, vulgar expressions and intensifies, but a greater tendency to use hedges, tag-questions, diminutives and euphemisms such as:

This is supported by Kuhn's (1982) analysis of university seminars conducted by nine different lecturers. It shows that the female lecturers employ almost twice as many downgraders (including particles and subjunctives in situations where they are not needed), far more tag-questions, and ten times as many personal addresses than the male lecturers. The distinction between a predominantly confrontational male style and a more co-operative female one is also borne out in role-plays conducted by Kotthof (1984), where a male and a female student were required to obtain the signature of a reluctant male lecturer.