Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-8448b6f56d-dnltx Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-20T04:15:38.396Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

8 - Adolescents and HIV

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  23 December 2009

By
Ligia Peralta  and
Bret J. Rudy
Edited by
Steven L. Zeichner  and
Jennifer S. Read
Ligia Peralta
Affiliation:
University of Maryland School of Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, Baltimore, MD
Bret J. Rudy
Affiliation:
Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, The University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine, PA
Steven L. Zeichner
Affiliation:
National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, Maryland
Jennifer S. Read
Affiliation:
National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland
Get access

Summary

Introduction

HIV-infected adolescents represent an important part of the global AIDS epidemic. In this chapter, the epidemiology of HIV infection in adolescents will be addressed, as well as adolescent development, HIV counseling and testing, and prevention of acquisition of HIV infection by adolescents. Finally, management of HIV-infected adolescents, including reproductive health and gynecologic care, will be addressed. It is not the intent of this chapter to review all aspects of management of HIV-infected adolescents, but rather to address issues that are unique to adolescents. This chapter emphasizes adolescent HIV infection as seen in the USA, but many of the principles are applicable to adolescents in other settings.

Epidemiology

The epidemiology of HIV infection among adolescents in the USA generally mirrors the epidemiology of HIV infection among adolescents in other resource-rich countries. In resource-poor countries, the epidemiology of HIV infection among adolescents is somewhat different in that HIV infection disproportionately affects young women, who generally become infected through heterosexual contact, often with older men.

By the end of 2001, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) estimated that adolescents aged 13 to 19 years made up less than 1% (4428 cases), and young adults aged 20–24 years represented 3.5% (28 665 cases), of all reported individuals with AIDS in the USA [1]. It is estimated that over 100 000 adolescents are living with HIV in the USA, although most are unaware of their infection [2].

Type
Chapter
Information
Handbook of Pediatric HIV Care , pp. 219 - 272
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2006

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immune deficiency syndrome Surveillance Report 2001; 13(2): 1–44.
Rotheram-Boris, M. J., Futterman, D.Promoting early detection of human immunodeficiency virus infection among adolescents. Arch. Pediatr. Adolesc. Med. 2000; 154;435–439.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rosenberg, P. R., Biggar, R. J., Goedert, J. J.Declining age at human immunodeficiency virus infection in the United States. N. Engl. J. Med. 1994;330:789.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Valleroy, L. A., Mackellar, D. A., Karon, J. M.et al.human immunodeficiency virus prevalence and associated risks in young men who have sex with men. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 2000;284: 198–204.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sweeney, P., Lindegren, M. L., Buehler, J. W., Onorato, I. M., Janssen, R. S.Teenagers at risk of human immunodeficiency virus type I infection. Arch. Pediatr. Adolesc. Med. 1995;149:521–528.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Slap, G. B.Normal physiological and psychosocial growth in the adolescent. J. Adolesc. Hlth Care 1986;7:13S–23S.Google ScholarPubMed
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Centers for Disease Control and PreventionSurveillance Summaries 2002;51(SS04):1–64.
Wilson, C. M., House, J., Partlow, C.et al.The reaching for excellence in adolescent care and health (Reaching for Excellence in Adolescent Care and Health) Project: study design, methods, and population profile. J. Adolesc. Hlth 2001;29(3S):8–18.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Troiden, R. R.Homosexual identity development. J. Adolesc. Hlth Care 1988;9:105–113.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
D'Angelo, L. J., Getson, P. R., Luban, N. L. C., Gayle, H. D.Human immunodeficiency virus infection in urban adolescents: can we predict who is at risk?Pediatrics 1991;88:982–986.Google ScholarPubMed
Lindsay, M. K., Johnson, N., Peterson, H. B., Willis, S., Williams, H., Klein, L.Human immunodeficiency virus infection among inner-city adolescent parturients undergoing routine voluntary screening, July 1987 to March 1991. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 1992;167(4):1096–1099.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Futterman, D. C., Peralta, L., Rudy, B. J.et al.The ACCESS (Adolescents Connected to Care, Evaluation, and Special Services) Project: social marketing to promote human immunodeficiency virus testing to adolescents, methods and first year results from a six city campaign. J. Adolesc. Hlth 2001; 29(3S):19–29.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kaiser Family Foundation. National Survey of Teens on human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immune deficiency syndrome. 2000:1–8.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Recommendations for human immunodeficiency virus testing services for in-patients and outpatients in acute care hospital settings. Morb. Mortal. Wkly Rep. 1993;42:1–17.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. human immunodeficiency virus testing among populations at risk for human immunodeficiency virus in nine cities: results from the human immunodeficiency virus Testing Survey (HITS) 1995–96. Morbid. Mortal. Wkly Rep. 1998;47: 1086–1091.
Clark, L. R., Ginsburg, K. R.How to talk to your teenage patients. Contemp. Adolesc.Gynecol. 1995–96;1:23–27.Google Scholar
Remafedi, G.Adolescent homosexuality: psychosocial and medical implications. Pediatrics 1987;79:331–337.Google ScholarPubMed
Ginsburg, K. R., Winn, R. J., Rudy, B. J., Crawford, J., Zhao, H., Schwarz, D. F.How to reach sexual minority youth in the health care setting: The teens offer guidance. J. Adolesc. Hlth 2002;31:407–416.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Strurdevant, M. S., Belzer, M., Weissman, G.et al.The relationship of unsafe sexual behavior and the characteristics of sexual partners of human immunodeficiency virus infected and human immunodeficiency virus uninfected adolescent females. J. Adolesc. Hlth 2001;29(3S):64–71.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Caprio, Joseph-Di J., Remafedi, G. J.Adolescents with factitious human immunodeficiency virus disease. J. Adolesc. Hlth Care 1997;21:102–106.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moscicki, A. B., Houser, J., Ma, Y., Murphy, D., Wilson, C. M. Adolescent males and females with human immunodeficiency virus at high risk for anal squamous intraepithelial lesions. ⅫI Int. acquired immune deficiency syndrome Conf. Durban, South Africa, July 9–14, 2000 (abstract number TuOrB305).
D'Angelo, L. J., Abdalian, S. E., Sarr, M., Hoffman, N., Belzer, M., and The Adolescent Medicine human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immune deficiency syndrome Research Network. Disclosure of serostatus by human immunodeficiency virus infected youth: The experience of the reaching for excellence in adolescent care and health Study. J. Adolesc. Hlth, 2001;29(3S)72–79.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harlan, W. R., Harlan, E. A., Grillo, G. P.Secondary sex characteristics of girls 12 to 17 years of age: The US health examination survey. J. Pediatr. 1980;96(6):1074–1078.Google Scholar
Zacharias, L., Rand, W. M., Wurtman, R. J.A prospective study of sexual development and growth in American girls: the statistics of menarche. Obstet. Gynecol. Survey 1976;31:325.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sedlmeyer, I. L., Palmert, M. R.Delayed puberty: Analysis of a large case series from an academic center. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 2002;87(4):1613–1620.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Frisch, R. E., Revelle, R.Menstrual cycles: fatness as a determinant of minimum weight-for-height for their maintenance or onset. Science 1974;185:949.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Albanese, A., Stanhope, R.Investigation of delayed puberty. Clin. Endocrinol. 1995;43:105–110.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mahoney, C. P.Evaluating the child with short stature. Pediatr. Clin. North Am. 1987;34:825–849.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Oerter, K. E., Uriarte, M. M., Rose, S. R., Barnes, K. M., Cutler, G. B. Jr.Gonadotropin secretory dynamics during puberty in normal girls and boys. J. Clin Endocrinol. Metab. 1990;71(5):1251–1258.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Finkelstein, J. W., Susman, E. J., Chinchilli, V. M.et al.Effects of estrogen or testosterone on self-reported sexual responses and behaviors in hypogonadal adolescents. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 1998;83(7):2281–2285.Google ScholarPubMed
Susman, E. J., Finkelstein, J. W., Chinchilli, V. M.et al.The effect of sex hormone replacement on behavior problems and moods in adolescents with delayed puberty. J. Pediatr. 1998;133(4):521–525.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Palmert, M. R., Malin, H. V., Boepple, P. A.Unsustained or slowly progressive puberty in young girls: initial presentation and long-term follow-up of 20 untreated patients. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 1999;84:415–423.Google ScholarPubMed
Carpenter, S.Pediatric and Adolescent Gynecology. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins; 2000.Google Scholar
Chirgwin, K. D., Feldman, J., Muneyyirci-Delale, O., Landesman, S., Minkoff, H.Menstrual function in human immunodeficiency virus-infected women without acquired immunedeficiency syndome. Obstet. J. Acquir. Immune Defic. Syndr. Hum. Retrovirol. 1996;12(5):489–494.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pletcher, J. R., Slap, G. B.Menstrual disorders. Amenorrhea. Pediatr. Clin. North Am. 1999;46(3):505–518.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Grinspoon, S., Corcoran, C., Miller, K.et al.Body composition and endocrine function in women with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome wasting. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 1997;82(5):1332–1337J.Google ScholarPubMed
Golden, N. H.A review of the female athlete triad (amenorrhea, osteoporosis and disordered eating). Int. J. Adolesc. Med. Hlth 2002;14(1):9–17.Google Scholar
Block, R. L., Farinpour, R., Schlechte, J. A., Effects of chronic marijuana use on testosterone, luteinizing hormone, follicle stimulating hormone, prolactin and cortisol in men and women. Drug Alcohol Depend. 1991;28(2):121–128.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Efstratiades, M., Panitsa-Faflia, C., Batrinos, M.Vaginal cytology in endocrinopathies. Acta Cytol. 1983;27(4):421–425.Google ScholarPubMed
Speroff, L., Glass, R. H., Kase, N. G. Anovulation and the polycystic ovary. In Clinical Gynecology Endocrinology and Infertility. Philadephia: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins; 1999:487–513.Google Scholar
Lobo, R. A., Carmina, E.The importance of diagnosing the polycystic ovary syndrome. Ann. Intern. Med. 2000;132(12):989–993.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stafford, D. E., Gordon, C. M.Adolescent androgen abnormalities. Curr. Opin. Obstet. Gynecol. 2002 Oct:14(5):445–451.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Balen, A.Pathogenesis of polycystic ovary syndrom – the enigma unravels?Lancet 1999;354(9183):966–967.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McKenna, T. J.Pathogenesis and treatment of polycystic ovary syndrome. N. Engl. J. Med. 1988; 318:558.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Avyad, C. K., Holeuwerger, R., Silva, V. C., Bordallo, M. A., Breitenbach, M. M.Menstrual irregularity in the first postmenarchal years: an early clinical sign of polycystic ovary syndrome in adolescence. Gynecol. Endocrinol. 2001;15(3):170–177.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carmina, E., Wong, L., Chang, L., Paulson, R. J., Sauer, M. V., Stanczyk, F. Z., Lobo, R. A.Endocrine abnormalities in ovulatory women with polycystic ovaries on ultrasound. Hum. Reprod. 1997;12(5):905–909.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gordon, C. M.Menstrual disorders in adolescents: excess androgens and the polycystic ovary syndrome. Pediatr. Clin. North Am. 1999; 46:519–543.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Arslanian, S. A., Lewy, V., Danadian, K., Saad, R.Metformin therapy in obese adolescents with polycystic ovary syndrome and impaired glucose tolerance: amelioration of exaggerated adrenal response to adrenocorticotropin with reduction of insulinemia/insulin resistance. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 2002;87(4):1555–1559.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Legro, R. S., Detection of insulin resistance and its treatment in adolescents with polycystic ovary syndrome. J. Pediatr. Endocrinol. Metab. 2002 Dec;15 Suppl 5:1367–1378.Google ScholarPubMed
Bravender, T., Emans, S. J.Menstrual disorders. Dysfunctional uterine bleeding. Pediatr. Clin. North Am. 1999;46(3):545–553, viii.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Munro, M. G.Dysfunctional uterine bleeding: advances in diagnosis and treatment. Curr. Opin. Obstet. Gynecol. 2001;13(5):475–489.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Munro, M. G.Abnormal uterine bleeding in the reproductive years. Part I – pathogenesis and clinical investigation. J. Am. Assoc. Gynecol. Laparosc. 1999;6(4):393–416.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, Munro M. G.Abnormal uterine bleeding in the reproductive years. Part II – medical management. J. Am. Assoc. Gynecol. Laparosc. 2000;7(1):17–35.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kilbourn, C. L., Richards, C. S.Abnormal uterine bleeding. Diagnostic considerations, management options. Postgrad. Med. 2001;109(1):137–138, 141–4, 147–150.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shah, P. N., Smith, J. R., Well, C., Barton, S. E., Kitchen, V. S., Steer, P. J.Menstrual symptoms in women infected by the human immunodeficiency virous. Obstet. Gynecol. 1994;83(3):397–400.Google Scholar
Dealy, M. F.Dysfunctional uterine bleeding in adolescents. Nurse Pract. 1998;23(5): 2–3, 16, 18–20.Google ScholarPubMed
Minjarez, D. A., Bradshaw, K. D.Abnormal uterine bleeding in adolescents. Obstet. Gynecol. Clin. North Am. 2000;27(1):63–78.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Speroff, L., Glass, R. H., Kase, N. G. Dysfunctional uterine bleeding. In Clinical Gynecologic Endocrinology and Infertility. Philadephia: Lippincott Wiliams and Wilkins; 1999: 575–593.Google Scholar
, Klein J. R., Litt, I. F.Epidemiology of adolescent dysmenorrhea. Pediatrics 1981. 68(5):661–664.Google Scholar
Harel, Z.A contemporary approach to dysmenorrhea in adolescents. Pediatr. Drugs 2002;4(12):797–805.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fedele, L., Bianchi, S., Bocciolone, L., Nola, Di G., Parazzini, F.Pain symptoms associated with endometriosis. Obstet. Gynecol. 1992;79(5 (Pt 1)):767–769.Google ScholarPubMed
Hornsby, P. P., Wilcox, A. J., Weinberg, C. R.Cigarette smoking and disturbance of menstrual function. Epidemiology 1998;9(2):193–198.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hendrix, S. L., Alexander, N. J.Primary dysmenorrhea treatment with a desogestrel-containing low-dose oral contraceptive. Contraception 2002;66(6):393–399.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, Chakmakjian Z. H.A critical assessment of therapy for the premenstrual tension syndrome. J. Reprod. Med. 1983;28(8):532–538.Google Scholar
Raja, S. N., Feehan, M., Stanton, W. R., McGee, R.Prevalence and correlates of the premenstrual syndrome in adolescence. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry 1992;31(5):783–789.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fisher, M., Trieller, K., Napolitano, B.Premenstrual symptoms in adolescents. J. Adolesc. Hlth Care 1989;10(5):369–375.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th edn. DSM-IV Text Revision. R. R. Washington, dendritic cells: American Psychiatric Association, 2000.
Steiner, M., Pearlstein, T.Premenstrual dysphoria and the serotonin system: pathophysiology and treatment. J. Clin. Psychiatry 2000;61 Suppl 12:17–21.Google ScholarPubMed
Freeman, E. W.Premenstrual syndrome: current perspectives on treatment and etiology. Curr. Opin. Obstet. Gynecol. 1997;9(3):147–153.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wenning J. Premenstrual syndrome. In McAnarney, E., Kreipe, R., Orr, D., Comerci, G.Textbook of Adolescent Medicine. Philadelphia, PA: W. B. Saunders Company; 1992: 670–671.Google Scholar
Johnson, S. R.Premenstrual syndrome therapy. Clin. Obstet. Gynecol. 1998;41(2):405–421.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stone, A.Microbicides: a new approach to preventing human immunodeficiency virus and other sexually transmitted infections. Nat. Rev. Drug Discov. 2002;1(12):977–985.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Guest, F. Education and Counseling: Factors influencing education and counseling. In Kowal, D., ed. Contraceptive Technology 17th edn. New York: Ardent Media Inc; 1998: 249–261.Google Scholar
Derman, S., Peralta, L.Postcoital contraception: present and future options. RU486 (Mifepristone)J. Adolesc. Hlth 1995;16:6–11.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hatcher, R., Trussel, J., Stewart, F. et al. In Kowal, D., ed. Contraceptive Technology 17th edn. New York: Ardent Media Inc; 1998.Google Scholar
Belzer, M., Rogers, A. S., Camarca, M.et al.Contraceptive choices in human immunodeficiency virus-infected and human immunodeficiency virus at-risk adolescent females. J. Adolesc. Hlth 2000;29S: 93–100.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hatcher, R., Trussel, J., Stewart, F. et al. human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immune deficiency syndrome and Reproductive Health. In Kowal, D., ed. Contraceptive Technology 17th edn. New York: Ardent Media Inc; 1998: 141–178.Google Scholar
Sivin, I., Moo-Yong, A.Recent developments in contraceptive implants at the Population Council. Contraception 2002;65(1):113–119.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smallwood, G. H., Meador, M. L., Lenihan, J. P., Shangold, G. A., Fisher, A. C., Creasy, G. W.Efficacy and safety of a transdermal contraceptive system. Obstet. Gynecol. 2001;98(5 Pt 1):799–805.Google ScholarPubMed
Hatcher, R. A., Guillebaud, J. The pill: combined oral contraceptive. In Kowal, D. ed. Contraceptive Technology, 17th edn. New York: Ardent Media Inc; 1998: 405–466.Google Scholar
Everett, S. A.Warrem, C. W., Santelli, J. S., Kann, L., Collins, J. L., Kolbe, L. J.Use of birth control pills, condoms, and withdrawal among US high school students. J. Adolesc. Hlth 2000;27(2):12–18.Google Scholar
Hatcher, R. A. Depo-Provera, Norplant, and progestin-only pills (minipills). In Kowal, D. ed. Contraceptive Technology 17th edn. New York: Ardent Media Inc; 1998, 467–509.Google Scholar
Audet, M. C., Moreau, M., Koltun, W. D.et al.Evaluation of contraceptive efficacy and cycle control of a transdermal contraceptive patch vs an oral contraceptive: a randomized controlled trial. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 2001;285(18):2347–2354.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Abrams, L. S., Skee, D., Matarajan, J., Wong, F. A.Pharmacokinetic overview of Ortho Evra/Evra. Fertil. Steril. 2002;77(2 Suppl 2): S3–S12.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Johansson, E., Brache, V., Alvarez, F.et al.Pharmacokinetic study of different dosing regimes of levonorgestrel for emergency contraception in healthy women. Hum. Reprod. 2002;17(6):1472–1476.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sivin, I., Mishell, D. R. Jr, Victor, A.et al.A multicenter study of levonorgestrel-estradiol contraceptive vaginal rings. II-Subjective and objective measures of effects. An international comparative trial. Contraception 1981;24(4):359–376.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ahdieh, L.Pregnancy and infection with human immunodeficiency virus. Clin. Obstet. Gynecol. 2001;44(2):154–166.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Levin, L., Henry-Reid, L., Murphy, D. A.et al.Adolescent Medicine human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immune deficiency syndrome Research Network. Incident pregnancy rates in human immunodeficiency virus-infected and human immunodeficiency virus uninfected at-risk-adolescents. J. Adolesc. Hlth 2001;29S:101–108.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vermund, S. H., Wilson, C. M., Rogers, A. S., Partlow, C., Moscicki, A. B.Sexually transmitted infections among human immunodeficiency virus-infected and human immunodeficiency virus uninfected high-risk youth in the reaching for excellence in adolescent care and health study. J. Adol. Hlth 2001;9S:49–56.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moscicki, A. B., Ellenberg, J. H., Vermund, S. H.et al.Prevalence of and risks for cervical human papillomavirus infection and squamous intraepithelial lesions in adolescent girls: impact of infection with human immunodeficiency virus. Arch. Pediatr. Adolesc. Med. 2000;54(2):127–134.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wasserheit, J. N.Epidemiological synergy. Inter-relationships between human immunodeficiency virus infection and other sexually transmitted diseases. Sex. Transm. Dis. 1992;19(2):61–77.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Laga, M., Manoka, A., Kivuvu, M.et al.Non-ulcerative sexually transmitted diseases as risk factors for human immunodeficiency virus transmission in women: results from a cohort studyacquired immune deficiency syndrome 1993;7(1):95–102.Google ScholarPubMed
Fleming, D. T., Wasserheit, J. N.From epidemiological synergy to public health policy and practice: The contribution of other sexually transmitted diseases to sexual transmission of human immunodeficiency virus infection. Sex. Transm. Infect. 1999;75(1):3–17.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pilon, R., Sandstrom, P., Burchell, A. et al. Transmitted human immunodeficiency virus reverse transcriptase inhibitor resistance mutation stability in antiretroviral therapy-naive recent seroconverters: results of the polaris human immunodeficiency virus seroconversion study. ⅪV Int. acquired immune deficiency syndrome Conf.; 2002 July 9; Barcelona. Abstract TuPeB4611.
Robertson, D., McMillan, A., Young, H.Clinical Practice in Sexually Transmissible Diseases. 2nd edn. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone; 1989.Google Scholar
Goldenberg, R. L., Andrews, W. W., Yuan, A. C., MacKay, H. T., Louis, M. E.StSexually transmitted diseases and adverse outcomes of pregnancy. Clin. Perinatal. 1997;24(1):23–41.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Korn, A. P.Pelvic inflammatory disease in women infected with human immunodeficiency virus. acquired immune deficiency syndrome Patient Care STDs 1998;12(6):431–434.Google Scholar
, Moscicki A B, , Ma Y, , Holland C, , Vermund S H.Cervical ectopy in adolescent girls with and without human immunodeficiency virus infection. J. Infect. Dis. 2001;183(6):865–870.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Sexually transmitted diseases treatment guidelines 2002. Morbid. Mortal. Wkly Rep. 2002;51(R6):1–78.
Ahmed, S., Lutalo, T., Wawer, M.et al.human immunodeficiency virus incidence and sexually transmitted disease prevalence associated with condom use: a population study in Rakai, Uganda. acquired immune deficiency syndrome 2001;15(16):2171–2179.Google ScholarPubMed
Holmes, K., Stamm, W. Lower genital tract infection syndromes in women. In Holmes, K., Sparling, F., Lemon, S.et al. eds. Sexually Transmitted Diseases. 3rd edn. New York: McGraw-Hill; 1999: 766.Google Scholar
Neinstein, L. S. ed. Adolescent Health Care. A Practical Guide. 4th edn. Lippincott Williams and Wilkins, Philadelphia, PA. 2002.Google Scholar
California STD/human immunodeficiency virus Prevention Training Center. Core STD Curriculum: Comprehensive Outlines for Clinical STD Management. 1999.
Ledru, S., Meda, N., Ledru, E., Bazie, A. J., Chiron, J. P.human immunodeficiency virus-1 infection associated with abnormal vaginal flora morphology and bacterial vaginosis. Lancet 1997;350(9086):1251–1252.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jamieson, D. J., Duerr, A., Klein, R. S.et al.Longitudinal analysis of bacterial vaginosis: findings from the human immunodeficiency virus epidemiology research study. Obstet. Gynecol. 2001;98(4):656–663.Google ScholarPubMed
Hillier, S., Holmes, K. K. Bacterial vaginosis. In Holmes, K., Sparling, F., Lemon, S.et al. Sexually Transmitted Diseases. 3rd edn. New York: McGraw-Hill; 1999: 563–586.Google Scholar
Amsel, R., Totten, P. A., Spiegel, C. A., Chen, K. C., Eschenbach, D., Holmes, K. K. Nonspecific vaginitis: diagnostic criteria and microbial and epidemiologic associations. In Holmes, K., Sparling, F., Lemon, S.et al. eds. Sexually Transmitted Diseases. 3rd edn. New York: NcGraw-Hill; 1999: 569.Google Scholar
Schwebke, J. R.Asymptomatic bacterial vaginosis: response to therapy. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 2000;183(6):1434–1439.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hay, P. Sr.National guideline for the management of bacterial vaginosis. Clinical Effectiveness Group (Association of Genitourinary Medicine and the Medical Society for the Study of Venereal Diseases). Sex. Transm. Infect. 1999;75 (Suppl 1):S16–S18.Google Scholar
Sobel, J. D. Vulvovaginal candidiasis. In Holmes, K., Sparling, F., Lemon, S.et al. eds. Sexually Transmitted Diseases. 3rd edn., New York: McGraw-Hill;1999:629–639.Google Scholar
Sobel, J. D., Ohmit, S. E., Schuman, P.et al.The evolution of Candida species and fluconazole susceptibility among oral and vaginal isolates recovered from human immunodeficiency virus (human immunodeficiency virus)-seropositive and at-risk human immunodeficiency virus-seronegative women. J. Infect. Dis. 2000;183(2):286–293.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sobel, J. D.Treatment of vaginal Candida infections. Expert Opin. Pharmacother. 2002;3(8):1059–1065.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sobel, J. D., Kapernick, P. S., Zervos, M.et al.Treatment of complicated Candida vaginitis: comparison of single and sequential doses of fluconazole. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 2001;185(2):363–369.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jackson, D. J., Rakwar, J. P., Bwayo, J. J., Kreiss, J. K., Moses, S.Urethal Trichomonas vaginalis infection and human immunodeficiency virus transmission. Lancet 1997;350(9084):1076.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Krieger, J., Alderete, J. Trichomonas vaginalis and trichomoniasis. In Holmes, K., Sparling, F., Lemon, S.et al.Sexually Transmitted Diseases. 3rd edn, New York: McGraw-Hill; 1999:587–604.Google Scholar
Moodley, P., Wilkinson, D., Connolly, C., Moodley, J., Sturm, A. W.Trichomonas vaginalis is associated with pelvic inflammatory disease in women infected with human immunodeficiency virus. Clin. Infect. Dis. 2002;34(4):519–22.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Damme, L., Ramjee, G., Alary, M.et al.COL-1492 study group. Effectiveness of COL-1492, a nonoxynol-9 vaginal gel, on human immunodeficiency virus transmission in female sex workers: a randomized controlled trial. Lancet 2002; 360(9338):971–977.Google Scholar
Igra, V.Pelvic inflammatory disease in adolescents. acquired immune deficiency syndrome Patient Care STDs 1998;12(2):109–124.Google ScholarPubMed
Westrom, L., Eschenbach, D. Pelvic inflammatory disease. In Holmes, K., Sparling, F., Lemon, S.Sexually Transmitted Diseases. 3rd edn, New York: McGraw-Hill; 1999: 783–809.Google Scholar
HRP Annual Technical Report 1995: Executive Summary. Available at: www.who.int/reproductive-health/publications/HRP-ATRs/1995/execsum.html. Acessed November 11, 2005.
Irwin, K. L., Moorman, A. C., O'Sullivan, M. J.et al.Influence of human immunodeficiency virus infection on pelvic inflammatory disease. Obstet. Gynecol. 2000;95(4):525–534.Google ScholarPubMed
Bersoff-Matcha, S. J., Horgan, M. M., Fraser, V. J., Mundy, L. M., Stoner, B. P.Sexually transmitted disease acquisition among women infected with human immunodeficiency virus type 1. J. Infect. Dis. 1998; 78(4): 1174–1177.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Irwin, K. L., Moorman, A. C., O'Sullivan, M. J.et al.Influence of human immunodeficiency virus infection on pelvic inflammatory disease. Obstet. Gynecol. 2000;95(4):525–534.Google ScholarPubMed
Cohen, C. R., Sinej, S., Reilly, M.et al.Effect of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection upon acute salpingitis: a laparoscopic study. J. Infect. Dis. 1998;178(5):1352–1358.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rice, P. A., Schachter, J.Pathogenesis of pelvic inflammaotory disease: what are the questions?J. Am. Med. Assoc. 1991;266(18): 2587–2593.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Slap, G. B., Forke, C. M., Cnaan, A.et al.Recognition of tubo-ovarian abscess in adolescents with pelvic inflammatory disease. J. Adolesc. Hlth. 1996;18(6):397–403.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Walker, C. K., Workowski, K. A., Washington, A. E., Soper, D., Sweet, R. L.Anaerobes in pelvic inflammatory disease: implications for the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's guidelines for treatment of sexually transmitted diseases. Clin. Infect. Dis. 1999;28(Suppl 1):S29–S36.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jacobson, D., Mizell, S., Peralta, L.et al.Concordance of human papilloma virus in the cervix and urine of adolescents with a high prevalence of human papillomavirus. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 2000;19(8):722–728.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Minkoff, H., Feldman, J., DeHovitz, J., Landesman, S., Burk, R.A longitudinal study of human papillomavirus carriage in human immunodeficiency virus-infected and human immunodeficiency virus-uninfected women. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 1998;178(5):982–986.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Palefsky, J. M., Minkoff, H., Kalish, L. A.et al.Cervicovaginal human papillomavirus infection in human immunodeficiency virus-1 (human immunodeficiency virus)-positive and high-risk human immunodeficiency virus-negative women. J. Natl Cancer Inst. 1999;337(3):22–236.Google Scholar
Sun, X. W., Kuhn, L., Ellerbrock, T. V., Chiasson, M. A., Bush, T. J., Wright, T. C.Human papillomavirus infection in women infected with the human immunodeficiency virus. N. Engl. J. Med. 1997;337(19):1343–1349.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jamieson, D. J., Duerr, A., Burk, R.et al.Characterization of genital human papillomavirus infection in women who have or who are at risk of having the human immunodeficiency virus infection. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 2002;186(1):21–27.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ahdieh, L., Munoz, A., Vlahov, D., Trimble, C., Timpson, L., Shah, K.Cervical neoplasia and repeated positivity of human papillomavirus infection in human immunodeficiency virus-seropositive and -seronegative women. Am. J. Epidemiol. 2000;151(12):1148–1157.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brown, D. R., Bryan, J. T., Cramer, H., Katz, B. P., Handy, V., Fife, K. H.Detection of multiple human papillomavirus types in condylomata acuminata from immunosuppressed patients. J. Infect. Dis. 1994;70:759–765.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Uberti-Foppa, C., Origoni, M., Maillard, M.et al.Evaluation of the detection of human papillomavirus genotypes in cervical specimens by hybrid capture as screening for precancerous lesions in human immunodeficiency virus-infected women. J. Med. Virol. 1998;56:133–137.3.0.CO;2-9>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Garzetti, G. G., Ciavattini, A., Butini, L., Vecchi, A., Montroni, M. Cervical dysplasia in human immunodeficiency virus-seropositive women: role of human papillomavirus infection and immune status. Gynecol. Obstet. Invest. 1995;40(1):52–56.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Massad, L. S., Riester, K. A., Anastos, K. M.et al.Prevalence and predictors of squamous cell abnormalities in Papanicolaou smears from women infected with human immunodeficiency virus. Women's Interagency human immunodeficiency virus Study Group. J. Acquir. Immune Defic. Syndr. 1999;21(1):33–41.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Delmas, M. C., Larsen, C., Benthem, B.et al.Cervical squamous intraepithelial lesions in human immunodeficiency virus-infected women: prevalence, incidence, and regression. acquired immune deficiency syndrome 2000;14(12):1775–1784.Google Scholar
Kiviat, N., Kovtsky, L. A., Paavonen, J. Cervical neoplasia and other STD related genital tract neoplasias. In Holmes, K., Sparling, F., Lemon, S.et al. eds. Sexually Transmitted Diseases. 3rd edn. New York: McGraw-Hill; 1999: 811–831.Google Scholar
Chiasson, M. A., Declining acquired immune deficiency syndrome mortality in New York City. New York City Department of Health. Bull. N Y Acad. Med. 1997;74(1):151–152.Google ScholarPubMed
Weber, T., Chin, K., Sidhu, J. S., Janssen, R. S. Prevalence of invasive cervical cancer among human immunodeficiency virus-infected and uninfected hospital patients, 1994–1995. Program Abstracts of 5th Conf. Retroviruses Opportunistic Infect. (Chicago, interleukin; 1998). Abstract 717.
Phelps, R., Smith, D. K., Gardner, L. et al. Incidence of lung and invasive cervical cancer in human immunodeficiency virus-infected women. Program Abstracts 13th Int. Conf. acquired immune deficiency syndrome (Durban, South Africa; July 9–14, 2000). Abstract number TuPeB3168.
Lomalisa, P., Smith, T., Guidozzi, F.Human immunodeficiency virus infection and invasive cervical cancer in South Africa. Gynecol. Oncol. 2000;77(3):460–463.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Maiman, M., Fruchter, R. C., Serur, E., Remy, J. C., Feurer, G., Boyce, J.Human immunodeficiency virus infection and cervical neoplasia. Gynecol. Oncol. 1990;38(3):377–382.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Klevens, R. M., Fleming, P. L., Mays, M. A., Frey, R. Characteristics of women with acquired immune deficiency syndrome and invasive cancer. Obstet Gynecol. 1996;88(2):269–273.Google Scholar
Solomon, D., Darvey, D., Kurman, R.et al.The 2001 Bethesda System: terminology for reporting results of cervical cytology. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 2002;287(16):2114–2119.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. Cervical cytology: evaluation and management of abnormalities (Technical Bulletin No. 183). Practice Guidelines August 1993.
Wright, T. C., Moscarelli, R. D., Dole, P., Ellerbrock, T. V., Chiasson, M. A., Vandevanter, N.Significance of mild cytologic atypia in women infected with human immunodeficiency virus. Obstet. Gynecol. 1996;87(4):515–519.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Holcomb, K., Abulafia, O., Matthews, R. P.et al.significance of atypical squamous cells of undetermined significance sytology in human immunodeficiency virus-infected women. Gynecol. Oncol. 1999;75(1):118–121.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Duska, L. R., Flynn, C. F., Chen, A., Whall-Strojwas, D., Goodman, A.Clinical evaluation of atypical glandular cells of undetermined significance on cervical cytology. Obstet. Gynecol. 1998;91(2):278–282.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kennedy, A. W., Salmieri, S. S., Wirth, S. L., Biscotti, C. V., Tuason, L. J., Travarca, M. J.Results of the clinical evaluation of atypical glandular cells of undetermined significance (atypical glandular cells of undetermined significance) detected on cervical cytology screening. Gynecol. Oncol. 1998;63(1):14–18.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Korn, A. P., Judson, P. L., Zaloudek, C. J.Importance of atypical glandular cells of uncertain significance in cervical cytologic smears. J. Reprod. Med. 1998;43(9):774–778.Google ScholarPubMed
Fruchter, R., Maiman, M., Sedlis, A., Bartley, L., Camilien, L., Arrastia, C. D.Multiple recurrences of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia in women with the human immunodeficiency virus. Obstet. Gynecol. 1996;87(3):338–344.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Holcomb, K., Matthews, R. P., Chapman, J. E.et al.The efficacy of cervical colonization in treatment of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia in human immunodeficiency virus-infected women. Gynecol. Oncol. 1999;74(3):428–431.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Maiman, M., Watts, D. H., Andersen, J., Clax, P., Merino, M., Kendall, M. A.Vaginal 5-fluorouracil for high-grade cervical dysplasia in human immunodeficiency virus infection: a randomized trial. Obstet. Gynecol. 1999;94(6):954–961.Google ScholarPubMed
Fleming, D. T., McQuillan, G. M., Johnson, R. E.et al.Herpes simplex virus type 2 in the United States, 1976 to 1994. N. Engl. J. Med. 1997;337(16):1105–1111.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Augenbraun, M., Feldman, J., Chirgwin, K.et al.Increased genital shedding of herpes simplex virus type 2 in human immunodeficiency virus-seropositive women. Ann. Int. Med. 1995;123(11):845–847.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mostad, S. B., Kreiss, J. K., Ryncarz, A. J.et al.Cervical shedding of herpes simplex virus in human immunodeficiency virus-infected women: effects of hormonal contraception, pregnancy and vitamin A deficiency. J. Infect. Dis. 2000;181(1):58–63.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Retesm, M., Graber, J., Reeves, W. Acyclovir-resistant herpes simplex virus: preliminary results from a national surveillance system. Program and Abstracts of the Int. Conf. Emerging Infect. Dis. 1998 Mar 10; Atlanta, GA (Abstract 55).
Tapert, S. F., Aarons, G. A., Sedlar, G. R., Brown, S. A.Adolescent substance use and sexual risk-taking behavior. J. Adolesc. Hlth. 2001;28(3):181–189.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nyrphy, D. A., Durako, S. D., Moscicki, A. B.et al. and the Adolescent Medicine human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immune deficiency syndrome Research Network. No change in health risk behaviors over time among human immunodeficiency virus-infected adolescents in care: role of psychological distress. J. Adolesc. Hlth 2001;29S:57–63.Google Scholar
Boyer, C. B., Shafer, M., Wibbelsman, C. J., Seeberg, D., Teitle, E., Lovell, N.Associations of sociodemographic psychosocial and behavioral factors with sexual risk and sexually transmitted diseases in teen clinic patients. J. Adolesc. Hlth 2000;27(2):102–111.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, Sanders-Phillips K.Factors influencing human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immune deficiency syndrome in women of color. Public. Hlth Rep. 2002;117 Suppl 1:S151–S156.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure coreplatform@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

  • Adolescents and HIV
    • By Ligia Peralta, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, Baltimore, MD, Bret J. Rudy, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, The University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine, PA
  • Edited by Steven L. Zeichner, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, Maryland, Jennifer S. Read
  • Book: Handbook of Pediatric HIV Care
  • Online publication: 23 December 2009
  • Chapter DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511544781.010
Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

  • Adolescents and HIV
    • By Ligia Peralta, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, Baltimore, MD, Bret J. Rudy, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, The University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine, PA
  • Edited by Steven L. Zeichner, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, Maryland, Jennifer S. Read
  • Book: Handbook of Pediatric HIV Care
  • Online publication: 23 December 2009
  • Chapter DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511544781.010
Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

  • Adolescents and HIV
    • By Ligia Peralta, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, Baltimore, MD, Bret J. Rudy, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, The University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine, PA
  • Edited by Steven L. Zeichner, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, Maryland, Jennifer S. Read
  • Book: Handbook of Pediatric HIV Care
  • Online publication: 23 December 2009
  • Chapter DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511544781.010
Available formats
×