Skip to main content Accessibility help
×
Hostname: page-component-7c8c6479df-hgkh8 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-03-28T19:41:18.131Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

1 - The resources of Late Antiquity

from PART I - THE LATE ANTIQUE CONTEXT

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  28 March 2011

Chase F. Robinson
Affiliation:
The Graduate Center, The City University of New York
Get access

Summary

The physical and strategic environment

Landscape

The late ancient world in the lands that were to be conquered by the first Muslim armies included a number of disparate regions, each offering a particular environment: Asia Minor or Anatolia, very roughly modern Turkey; the Levant or Middle Eastern regions down to and including Egypt; Mesopotamia and the Iranian plateau to the east; North Africa, from Egypt westwards to the Atlantic; and the Balkans. The Mediterranean and Black Seas united the westernmost of these very different regions, while riverine systems on the one hand and plateaux and desert on the other served both to differentiate and to connect those in the east. Climate determined the patterns of agricultural and pastoral exploitation within these zones, but it also constrained and determined in many respects the nature of state and private surplus-extracting activities.

The limited but fertile agricultural lands of Palestine and western Syria have always been relatively wealthy, in contrast to the more mountainous lands to the north and the deserts to the south and east. Greater Syria, including Palestine and the Lebanon, incorporates a number of very different landscapes, the terrain alternating from rugged highlands, through the fertile plains of northern Syria or central Palestine, the hilly uplands around Jerusalem to the desert steppe of central Syria. These landscapes had stimulated the development of very different communities, and the artificial unity imposed by the Roman state and, later, the early caliphate, should not disguise these stark contrasts.

Type
Chapter
Information
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2010

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Abdi, K., ‘Archaeological research in the Islamabad plain, central western Zagros mountains: Preliminary results from the first season, summer 1998’, Iran, 37 (1999)Google Scholar
Abdi, , ‘Archaeological research in the Islamabad plain’; K. Abdi, ‘Islamabad 1999’, Iran, 38 (2000).Google Scholar
Adams, R. M., The land behind Baghdad: A history of settlement on the Diyala plains, Chicago and London, 1965.
Adams, R. M. and Hansen, D. P., ‘Archaeological reconnaissance and soundings in Jundi Shapur’, Ars Islamica, 7 (1968)Google Scholar
Adams, R. M., Heartland of cities: Surveys of ancient settlement and land use on the central floodplain of the Euphrates (Chicago, 1981) –83, 208–11
Adams, R. M., ‘Tell Abu Sarifa: A Sassanian Islamic ceramic sequence from south central Iraq’, Ars Orientalis, 8 (1970) –18Google Scholar
Alcock, S., Graecia capta: The landscapes of Roman Greece, Cambridge, 1993.
Amir, Harrak, ‘Trade routes and the Christianization of the Near East’, Journal of the Canadian Society for Syriac Studies, 2 (2002).Google Scholar
Arzanoush, M., The Sasanian manor house at Hajjiabad (Florence, 1994).
Avramea, A., Le Péloponnèse du IVe au VIIIe siècle: Changements et persistances, Paris, 1997.
Bagnall, R. S., Egypt in Late Antiquity (Princeton, 1993)
Balādhurī, , al-Balâdhurî, Kitâb futûh al-Buldân: The origins of the Islamic state, trans. Hitti, P. K. (London, 1916/Beirut, 1966) –4.
Banaji, J., Agrarian change in Late Antiquity: Gold, labour and aristocratic dominance, Oxford, 2001.
Banaji, J., ‘Precious metal coinages and monetary expansion in Late Antiquity’, in Dal Denarius al Dinar: L’oriente e la moneta romana. Atti del’incontro di studio, Roma 16–18 sett. 2004 (Rome, 2006) –6.Google Scholar
Barthold, V., Turkestan down to the Mongol invasion, London, 1928.
Baruch, U., ‘The late Holocene vegetation history of Lake Kinneret (Sea of Galilee)’, Palaeorient, 12 (1986) –48.Google Scholar
Beaumont, P., Blake, G. H. and Wagstaff, M., The Middle East: A geographical study, London, 1988.
Behnam, J., ‘Population’, in Fisher, W. B. (ed.), The Cambridge history of Iran, vol. I: The land of Iran, Cambridge, 1968 –85.Google Scholar
Belke, K., and Hild, F., Koder, J.and Soustal, P. (eds.), Byzanz als Raum. Zu Methoden und Inhalten der historischen Geographie des östlichen Mittelmeerraumes, Denkschriften der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, philosophisch-historische Klasse 283, Vienna, 2000.
Blockley, R. C., East Roman foreign policy: Formation and conduct from Diocletian to Anastasius, Leeds, 1992.
Bobek, H., ‘Vegetation’, in Fisher, W. B. (ed.), The Cambridge history of Iran, vol. I: The land of Iran, Cambridge, 1968 –93.Google Scholar
Bottema, S., Woldring, H. and Aytug, B., ‘Palynological investigations on the relations between prehistoric man and vegetation in Turkey: The Beyşehir Occupation Phase’, Proceedings of the 5th Optima Congress, September 1986 (Istanbul, 1986) –28Google Scholar
Bowden, W., Lavan, L.and Machado, C. (eds.), Recent research on the late Antique countryside, Leiden, 2004.
Bowen-Jones, H., ‘Agriculture’, in Fisher, W. B. (ed.), The Cambridge history of Iran, vol. I: The land of Iran, Cambridge, 1968 –98.Google Scholar
Brandes, W., Die Städte Kleinasiens im 7. und 8. Jahrhundert, Berliner Byzantinistische Arbeiten 56, Berlin, 1989.
Brandes, W., and Haldon, J. F., ‘Towns, tax and transformation: State, cities and their hinterlands in the East Roman world, ca. 500–800’, in Gauthier, N. (ed.), Towns and their hinterlands between Late Antiquity and the early Middle Ages, Leiden, 2000 –72.Google Scholar
Braudel, F., The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean world in the age of Philip II, 2 vols., London and New York, 1973.
Brogiolo, G.-P., Gauthier, N.and Christie, N. (eds.), Towns and their territories between Late Antiquity and the early Middle Ages, The Transformation of the Roman World 9, Leiden, 2000.
Brunner, C., ‘Geographical and administrative divisions: Settlements and economy’, in Yarshater, E. (ed.), The Cambridge history of Iran, vol. III: The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian periods, Cambridge, 1983 –77.Google Scholar
Bulliet, R. W., The camel and the wheel, Cambridge, MA, 1975.
Bulliet, R. W., ‘Medieval Nishapur: A topographic and demographic reconstruction’, Studia Iranica, 5 (1976), p.Google Scholar
Cameron, A., and Garnsey, P. (eds.), The Cambridge ancient history, vol. XIII: The late empire, AD 337–425, Cambridge, 1998.
Cameron, A., B. Ward-Perkins, and Whitby, M. (eds.), The Cambridge ancient history, vol. XIV: Late Antiquity: Empire and successors, AD 425–600, Cambridge, 2000.
Canard, M., ‘Le riz dans le Proche Orient aux premiers siècles d’Islam’, Arabica, 6 (1959) –31.Google Scholar
Canivet, P., and Rey-Coquais, J.-P. (eds.), La Syrie de Byzance à l’Islam: VIIe–VIIe siècles, Damascus, 1992.
Carter, F. W. (ed.), An historical geography of the Balkans, London, San Francisco and New York, 1977.
Chavarría, A., and Lewit, T., ‘The Late Antique countryside: A bibliographic essay’, in Bowden, W., Lavan, L.and Machado, C. (eds.), Recent research on the Late Antique countryside, Leiden, 2004 –51.Google Scholar
Christensen, A., L’Iran sous les Sassanides, Copenhagen, 1944.
Christensen, P., The decline of Iranshahr: Irrigation and environments in the history of the Middle East, 500 BC to AD 1500, Copenhagen, 1993.
Colless, B. E., ‘Persian merchants and missionaries in medieval Malaya’, Journal of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, 42 (1969) –47Google Scholar
Conrad, L., ‘Epidemic disease in central Syria in the late sixth century: Some new insights from the verse of Ḥassān ibn Thābit’, Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies, 18 (1994) –58.Google Scholar
Cullen, H. M. and de Menocal, P. B., ‘North Atlantic influence on Tigris–Euphrates stream-flow’, International Journal of Climatology, 20 (2000)Google Scholar
Curtis, P., Feierman, S., Thompson, L. and Vansina, J., African history: From earliest times to the present, London and New York, 1995.
Daryaee, T. (ed., trans. and comm.), Šahrestānīhā ī Ērānšāhr: A middle Persian text on late antique geography, epic and history (Costa Mesa, 2002)
Daryaee, T., ‘The effect of the Arab-Muslim conquest on the administrative division of Sasanian Persis/Fārs’, Iran, 41 (2003) –204Google Scholar
de la Vaissière, E., Sogdian traders: A history (Leiden and Boston, 2005) –32
Planhol, X., Les fondements géographiques de l’histoire de l’Islam, Paris, 1968.
Planhol, X., ‘Geography of settlement’, in Fisher, W. B. (ed.), The Cambridge history of Iran, vol. I: The land of Iran, Cambridge, 1968, 409–67.Google Scholar
Dewdney, J. C., Turkey, London, 1971.
Diamond, J., Collapse: How societies choose to fail or succeed (New York, 2005)
Donner, F., ‘The role of nomads in the Near East in Late Antiquity (400–800 CE)’, in Clover, F.and Humphreys, R. S. (eds.), Tradition and innovation in Late Antiquity, Madison, 1989, 73–85.Google Scholar
Dunlop, D. M., ‘Sources of gold and silver according to al-Hamdānī’, Studia Islamica, 8 (1957)Google Scholar
Dunn, A. W., ‘The exploitation and control of woodland and scrubland in the Byzantine world’, Byzantine and Modern Greek Sudies, 16 (1992)Google Scholar
Dunn, A. W., ‘Heraclius’ “reconstruction of cities” and their sixth-century Balkan antecedents’, in Acta XIII Congressus Internationalis Archaeologiae Christianae, Studi di Antichità Cristiana 54 (Vatican City and Split, 1998)Google Scholar
Durliat, J., De la ville antique à la ville byzantine: Le problème des subsistances, Rome, 1990.
Fiey, J.-M., ‘Vers la réhabilitation de l’Histoire de Karka d’Beit Sloh’, Analecta Bollandiana, 82 (1964)Google Scholar
Fisher, W. B. (ed.), The Cambridge history of Iran, vol. I: The land of Iran, Cambridge, 1968.
Fisher, W. B., ‘Physical geography’, in Fisher, W. B. (ed.), The Cambridge history of Iran, vol. I: The land of Iran, Cambridge, 1968, 3–110.Google Scholar
Foss, C., ‘The Near-Eastern countryside in Late Antiquity: A review article’, in Humphrey, J. (ed.), The Roman and Byzantine Near East, vol. II: Some recent archaeological research, JRA Supplementary Series 31, Portsmouth, 1995 –34.Google Scholar
Frank, A. Gunder, ‘Abuses and uses of world systems theory in archaeology’, in Kardulias, P. N. (ed.), World-systems theory in practice: Leadership, production and exchange (Lanham, 1999) –95Google Scholar
Friedmann, Y., ‘A contribution to the early history of Islam in India’, in Rosen-Ayalon, M. (ed.), Studies in memory of Gaston Wiet, Jerusalem, 1977 –34.Google Scholar
Frye, R. N., ‘The Sasanian system of walls for defense’, in Rosen-Ayalon, M. (ed.), Studies in memory of Gaston Wiet (Jerusalem, 1977)Google Scholar
Garnsey, P., and Whittaker, C. R., ‘Trade, industry and the urban economy’, in Cameron, A.and Garnsey, P. (eds.), The Cambridge ancient history, vol. XIII: The late empire, AD 337–425, Cambridge, 1998 –37.Google Scholar
Gatier, P.-L., ‘Villages du Proche-Orient protobyzantin (4ème–7èmes.): Étude régionale’, in King, G. R. D.and Cameron, A. (eds.), The Byzantine and early Islamic Near East, vol. II: Land use and settlement patterns, Princeton, 1994 –48.Google Scholar
Geyer, B., ‘Physical factors in the evolution of the landscape and land use’, in Laiou, A. et al. (eds.), The economic history of Byzantium from the seventh through the fifteenth century, Washington, DC, 2002 –45.Google Scholar
Ghirshman, R., Terrasses sacrées de Bard-e Nechandah et Masjid-e Solaiman, Mémoires de la Délégation Archéologique en Perse 45 (Paris, 1976), 143.
Girgis, M. S., Mediterranean Africa, New York and London, 1987.
Gregory, T., ‘Fortification and urban design in early Byzantine Greece’, in Hohlfelder, R. L. (ed.), City, town and countryside in the early Byzantine era (New York, 1982)Google Scholar
Grignaschi, M., ‘Quelques specimens de la littérature sassanide conservés dans les bibliothèques d’Istanbul’, Journal Asiatique, 254 (1966) –142Google Scholar
Gyselen, R. (ed.), Contributions à l’histoire et la géographie historique de l’empire sassanide, Res Orientales 16, Bures-sur-Yvette, 2004.
Gyselen, R., ‘Un trésor de monnaies sassanides tardives’, Revue Numismatique, ser. 6, 32 (1990) –31Google Scholar
Haas, C., ‘Alexandria and the Mareotis region’, in Burns, T. S.and Eadie, J. W. (eds.), Urban centres and rural contexts in Late Antiquity, East Lansing, 2001 –62.Google Scholar
Haerinck, E., Le céramique en Iran pendant le période parthe, Ghent, 1983.
Haldon, J. F., Byzantium in the seventh century: The transformation of a culture, Cambridge, 1997.
Haldon, J. F., ‘Some considerations on Byzantine society and economy in the seventh century’, Byzantinische Forschungen, 10 (1985) –112 (1985).Google Scholar
Haldon, J. F., Warfare, state and society in Byzantium –1204, London, 1999.
Hassan, F. A., Demographic archaeology, London, 1981.
Heck, G. W., ‘Gold mining in Arabia and the rise of the Islamic state’, Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, 42 (1999)Google Scholar
Hendy, M. F., Studies in the Byzantine monetary economy, c. 300–1450, Cambridge, 1985.
Herrmann, G., Kurbansakhatov, K. et al. (eds.), ‘The International Merv Project: Preliminary report on the fifth season (1996)’, Iran, 35 (1997) –33Google Scholar
Herrmann, G., Kurbansakhatov, K. and Simpson, J. (eds.), ‘The International Merv Project: Preliminary report on the eighth year (1999)’, Iran, 38 (2000) –5Google Scholar
Hirschfeld, Y., ‘Farms and villages in Byzantine Palestine’, Dumbarton Oaks Papers, 51 (1997)Google Scholar
Hopkins, K., ‘Rome, taxes, rent and trade’, Kodai: Journal of Ancient History, 6–7 (1995–6) –75Google Scholar
Horden, P., and Purcell, N., The corrupting sea: A study of Mediterranean history, Oxford, 2000.
Howard-Johnston, J., ‘The two great powers in Late Antiquity: A comparison’, in Cameron, A., (ed.), The Byzantine and early Islamic Near East, vol. III: States, resources and armies, Studies in Late Antiquity and Early Islam, 1, Princeton, 1995 –226.Google Scholar
Huff, D., ‘Sasanian cities’, in Kiani, M. Y. (ed.), A general study of urbanization and urban planning in Iran, Tehran, 1986 –204.Google Scholar
Huff, D., ‘Zur Rekonstruktion des Turmes von Firuzabad’, Istanbuler Mitteilungen, 19–20 (1969–70).Google Scholar
Inalcǐk, H. (ed.), An economic and social history of the Ottoman Empire, vol. I: 1300–1600, Cambridge, 1994/1997.
Issar, A. S., Climate changes during the Holocene and their impact on hydrological systems, Cambridge, 2003.
Jones, A. H. M., ‘The cities of the Roman empire: Political, administrative and judicial functions’, Recueils de la Société Jean Bodin, 6 (1954), 135–73; repr. in Brunt, P. A. (ed.), The Roman economy: Studies in ancient economic and administrative history, Oxford, 1974 –34.Google Scholar
Jones, A. H. M. The Greek city from Alexander to Justinian, Oxford, 1967.
Jones, M. D., Roberts, C. Neil, Leng, M. J. and Türkeş, M., ‘A high-resolution late Holocene lake isotope record from Turkey and links to North Atlantic and monsoon climate’, Geology, 34 (May 2006)Google Scholar
Kaplan, M., Les hommes et la terre à Byzance du VIe au XIe siècles, Paris, 1992.
Kazhdan, A. P. et al., The Oxford dictionary of Byzantium (Oxford and New York, 1991), p.
Kennedy, H., ‘The last century of Byzantine Syria: A reinterpretation’, Byzantinische Forschungen, 10 (1985) –83.Google Scholar
Kennedy, H. and Liebeschuetz, J. H. W. G., ‘Antioch and the villages of northern Syria in the 5th and 7th centuries: Trends and problems’, Nottingham Medieval Studies, 32 (1988)Google Scholar
Kennedy, , ‘From shahristan to medina’; and Petruccioli, A., Bukhara: The myth and the architecture (Cambridge, MA, 1999), p.Google Scholar
Kennet, D., Sasanian and Islamic pottery from Ras al-Khaimah: Classification, chronology and analysis of trade in the western Indian Ocean, British Archaeological Reports International Series 1248, Oxford, 2004.
Kennet, D.Sasanian pottery in southeastern Iran and eastern Arabia’, Iran, 40 (2002) –62.Google Scholar
Kervran, M., ‘Forteresses, entrepôts et commerce: Une histoire à suivre depuis les rois sassanides jusqu’aux princes d’Ormuz’, in Curie, R.and Gyselen, R. (eds.), Itinéraires d’Orient: Hommages à Claude Cahen (Louvain, 1994), esp. –8Google Scholar
King, G. R. D., and Cameron, A. (eds.), The Byzantine and early Islamic Near East, vol. II: Land use and settlement patterns, Princeton, 1994.
Kingsley, S., and Decker, M. (eds.), Economy and exchange in the east Mediterranean during Late Antiquity, Oxford, 2001.
Koder, J., ‘The urban character of the early Byzantine empire: Some reflections on a settlement geographical approach to the topic’, in 17th International Byzantine Congress, Major Papers, New Rochelle, NY, 1986 –87.Google Scholar
Krawczyk, J.-L., ‘The relationship between pastoral nomadism and agriculture: Northern Syria and the Jazira in the eleventh century’, Jusur, 1 (1985) –22.Google Scholar
Strange, G., Lands of the eastern caliphate, Cambridge, 1930.
Lev-Yadun, S., Lipschitz, N. and Waisel, Y., ‘Annual rings in trees as an index to climate changes intensity in our region in the past’, Rotem, 22 (1987) –17 (Eng. summary p. 113).Google Scholar
Liebeschuetz, J. H. W. G., ‘Administration and politics in the cities of the fifth to the mid-seventh century’, in Cameron, A., Ward-Perkins, B.and Whitby, M. (eds.), The Cambridge ancient history, vol. XIV: Late Antiquity: Empire and successors, AD 425–600, Cambridge, 2000 –37.Google Scholar
Liebeschuetz, J. H. W. G. The decline and fall of the Roman city, Oxford, 2001.
Lieu, S. N. C., ‘Captives, refugees and exiles’, in Freeman, P.and Kennedy, D. (eds.), The defence of the Roman and Byzantine East, 2 vols. (Oxford, 1986), vol. II –83Google Scholar
Loewe, M., ‘Spices and silk: Aspects of world trade in the first seven centuries of the Christian era’, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, n.s., 2 (1971) –79Google Scholar
MacAdam, H., ‘Settlements and settlement patterns in northern and central Transjordania, ca. 550–750’, in King, G. R. D.and Cameron, A. (eds.), The Byzantine and early Islamic Near East, vol. II: Land use and settlement patterns, Princeton, 1994 –93.Google Scholar
Magness, J., ‘Redating the forts at Ein Boqeq, Upper Zohar, and other sites in SE Judaea, and the implications for the nature of the Limes Palaestinae’, in Humphrey, J. H. (ed.), The Roman and Byzantine Near East, vol. II: Some recent archaeological research, JRA Supplementary Series 31 (Portsmouth, RI, 1999)Google Scholar
Maier, A. M., ‘Sassanica varia Palaestinensia: A Sassanian seal from T. Istaba, Israel, and other Sassanian objects from the southern Levant’, Iranica Antiqua, 35 (2000) –83.Google Scholar
Mason, R. B., ‘Early medieval Iraqi lustre-painted and associated wares: Typology in a multidisciplinary study’, Iraq, 59 (1997) –61.Google Scholar
Mazzarino, S., La fine del mondo antico (Milan, 1988)
McCormick, M., Origins of the European economy: Communications and commerce, AD 300–900, Cambridge, 2001.
Mitchell, S., Anatolia: Land, men and gods in Asia Minor, vol. II: The rise of the Church, Oxford, 1993.
Moghaddam, A. and Miri, N., ‘Archaeological research in the Mianab Plain of lowland Susiana, south-western Iran’, Iran, 41 (2003) –5Google Scholar
Morony, , ‘Population transfers’; E. Kettenhofen, ‘Deportations II: In the Parthian and Sasanian periods’, in Yarshater, E. (ed.), Encyclopaedia Iranica, London and Boston, 1982–, VII (Costa Mesa, 1994)Google Scholar
Morony, M. G., Iraq after the Muslim conquest, Princeton, 1984; repr. Piscataway, NJ, 2006.
Morony, M. G., ‘Economic boundaries? Late Antiquity and early Islam’, Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, 47 (2004) –94.Google Scholar
Morony, M. G.,‘Land use and settlement patterns in late Sasanian and early Islamic Iraq’, in King, G. R. D.and Cameron, A. (eds.), The Byzantine and early Islamic Near East, vol. II: Land use and settlement patterns, Princeton, 1994 –9.Google Scholar
Morony, M., ‘The late Sasanian economic impact on the Arabian Peninsula’, Nāme-ye-Irān-e Bāstān, 1, 2 (2001/2) –1Google Scholar
Morony, M., ‘Commerce in early Islamic Iraq’, Asien Afrika Lateinamerika, 20 (1993) –710Google Scholar
Morrisson, C., and Sodini, J.-P., ‘The sixth-century economy’, in Laiou, A. et al. (eds.), The economic history of Byzantium from the seventh through the fifteenth century, Washington, DC, 2002 –220.Google Scholar
Nakshabandi, N. and Rashid, F., ‘The Sassanian dirhams in the Iraq Museum’, Sumer, 11 (1955) –76Google Scholar
Neely, J. A., ‘Sassanian and early Islamic water-control and irrigation systems on the Deh-Luran plain, Iran’, in Downing, T. E.and Gibson, M. (eds.), Irrigation’s impact on society, Tucson, 1974, 21–42.Google Scholar
Nicolle, D., Historical atlas of the Islamic world, New York, 2003.
Nöldeke, T., Geschichte der Perser und Araber zur Zeit der Sasaniden (Leiden, 1879), p.
Oates, D., Studies in the ancient history of northern Iraq, Oxford, 1968.
Patricia, Crone, ‘How did the Quranic pagans make a living?’, Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, 68 (2005) –99Google Scholar
Philippson, A., Das byzantinische Reich als geographische Erscheinung, Leiden, 1939.
Piacentini, V. F., ‘Ardashīr I Pāpakān and the wars against the Arabs: Working hypothesis on the Sasanian hold of the Gulf’, Proc. Seminar in Arabian Studies, 15 (1985) –77.Google Scholar
Pigulevskaya, N., Les villes de l’état iranien aux époques parthe et sassanide (Paris, 1963), see esp.
Potts, D. T., ‘Late Sasanian armament from southern Arabia’, Electrum, 1 (1997) –37.Google Scholar
Pourshariati, P., Decline and fall of the Sasanian empire: The Sasanian–Parthian confederacy and the Islamic conquest of Iran (London, 2008).
Priestman, S. M. N., ‘The Williamson Collection project: Sasanian and Islamic survey ceramics from southern Iran, current research’, Iran, 40 (2002) –7, 41 (2003), 345–8.Google Scholar
Raschke, M. G., ‘New studies in Roman commerce with the east’, in Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt, 2, 9.2 (1978) –50Google Scholar
Reynolds, P., Trade in the western Mediterranean AD 400–700: The ceramic evidence, British Archaeological Reports International Series 604, Oxford, 1995.
Ricciardi, R. V., ‘The excavations at Choche’, Mesopotamia, 5–6 (1970–1)Google Scholar
Russell, J. C., Late ancient and medieval population, Philadelphia, 1958.
Russell, J. C., ‘Transformations in early Byzantine urban life: The contribution and limitations of archaeological evidence’, in Seventeenth International Byzantine Congress: Major Papers, New York, 1986 –54.Google Scholar
Sajjadi, M., ‘A class of Sassanian ceramics from southeastern Iran’, Rivista di Archeologia, 13 (1989) –40.Google Scholar
Sarris, P., ‘The origins of the manorial economy: New insights from late Antiquity’, English Historical Review, 119 (2004)Google Scholar
Sarris, P., ‘The early Byzantine economy in context’, in Whittow, M. (ed.), Byzantium’s economic turn (Oxford, 2009)Google Scholar
Schippmann, K., Die iranischen Feuerheiligtümer (Berlin, 1971)
Sears, J., ‘Monetary revision and monetization in the late Sasanian empire’, Cahiers de Studia Iranica, 2 (1999) –67Google Scholar
Shoup, J., ‘Middle Eastern sheep pastoralism and the hima system’, in Galaty, J. G.and Johnson, D. L. (eds.), The world of pastoralism: Herding systems in comparative perspective, New York, 1990 –215.Google Scholar
Simpson, J., ‘Mesopotamia in the Sasanian period: Settlement patterns, arts and crafts’, in Curtis, J. (ed.), Mesopotamia and Iran in the Parthian and Sasanian periods: Rejection and revival c.238 BC–AD 642 (London, 2000)Google Scholar
Simpson, St J., ‘From Tekrit to the Jaghjagh: Sasanian sites, settlement patterns and material culture’, in Bartl, K.and Hauser, S. R. (eds.), Continuity and change in northern Mesopotamia from the Hellenistic to the early Islamic period, Berlin, 1996 –126.Google Scholar
Skaff, J. K., ‘Sasanian and Arab-Sasanian silver coins from Turfan: Their relationship to international trade and the local economy’, Asia Major, 11, 2 (1998) –114Google Scholar
Slicher van Bath, B. H., An agrarian history of western Europe, London, 1963.
Spieser, J.-M., ‘L’Évolution de la ville byzantine de l’époque paléochrétienne à l’iconoclasme’, in Morrisson, C. et al. (eds.), Hommes et richesses dans l’Empire byzantin, IVe–VIIe siècles, Paris, 1989 –106.Google Scholar
Stathakopoulos, D., Famine and pestilence in the late Roman and early Byzantine Empire: A systematic survey of subsistence crises and epidemics, Birmingham Byzantine and Ottoman Monographs 9, Aldershot, 2004.
Stathakopoulos, D., ‘The Justinianic plague revisited’, Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies, 24 (2000) –76.Google Scholar
Tampoe, M., Maritime trade between China and the west: An archaeological study of the ceramics from Sīrāf (Persian Gulf), 8th to 15th centuries AD (Oxford, 1989), p.
Tate, G., Les campagnes de la Syrie du nord du IIe au VIIe siècle: Un exemple d’expansion démographique et économique dans les campagnes à la fin de l’Antiquité, Paris, 1992.
Tchalenko, G., Villages antiques de la Syrie du nord: Le massif du Bélus a l’époque romaine (Paris, 1953–8), vol. I –7
Telelis, I. G., Μετεωρoλoγικά Φαινóμενα και κλíμα στo Βυζάντιo, 2 vols., Athens, 2003.
Thierry, F., ‘Sur les monnaies sassanides trouvées en Chine’, in Gyselen, R. (ed.), Circulation des monnaies, des merchandises et des biens (Louvain, 1993) –139Google Scholar
Trinkaus, K. M., ‘Settlement of highlands and lowlands in early Islamic Dāmghān’, Journal of Persian Studies, 23 (1985), 136–7.Google Scholar
Trombley, F. R., ‘War and society in rural Syria c. 502–613 AD: Observations on the demography’, Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies, 21 (1997), esp., 168, 182ffGoogle Scholar
Tsafrir, Y., and Foerster, G., ‘From Scythopolis to Baysân: changing concepts of urbanism’, in King, G. R. D.and Cameron, A. (eds.), The Byzantine and early Islamic Near East, vol. II: Land use and settlement patterns, Princeton, 1994 –115.Google Scholar
Tyler-Smith, S., ‘Sasanian mint abbreviations’, Numismatic Chronicle, 143 (1983) –7.Google Scholar
der, Veen, Grant, M. A. and Barker, G., ‘Romano-Libyan agriculture: Crops and animals’, in Barker, G. et al. (eds.), Farming the desert: The UNESCO Libyan valley archaeological survey, Tripoli, 1996, 227–63.Google Scholar
Veenenbos, J. S., Unified report of the soil and land classification of Dezful project, Khūzistān, Iran (Tehran, 1959)
Wagstaff, J. M., The evolution of the Middle Eastern landscapes, Canterbury, 1984.
Walmsley, A., ‘Byzantine Palestine and Arabia: Urban prosperity in Late Antiquity’, in Christie, N.and Loseby, S. T. (eds.), Towns in transition: Urban evolution in Late Antiquity and the early Middle Ages (Aldershot and Brookfield, 1996), esp. –51Google Scholar
Ward-Perkins, B., ‘The cities’, in Cameron, A.and Garnsey, P. (eds.), The Cambridge ancient history, vol. XIII: The late empire, AD 337–425, Cambridge, 1998 –410.Google Scholar
Ward-Perkins, B., ‘Land, labour and settlement’, in Cameron, A., Ward-Perkins, B.and Whitby, M. (eds.), The Cambridge ancient history, vol. XIV: Late Antiquity: Empire and successors, AD 425–600, Cambridge, 2000 –45.Google Scholar
Ward-Perkins, B., ‘Specialised production and exchange’, in Cameron, A., Ward-Perkins, B.and Whitby, M. (eds.), The Cambridge ancient history, vol. XIV: Late Antiquity: Empire and successors, AD 425–600, Cambridge, 2000 –91.Google Scholar
Watson, A. M., ‘A medieval green revolution: New crops and farming techniques in the early Islamic world’, in Udovitch, A. L. (ed.), The Islamic Middle East, 700–1900: Studies in economic and social history (Princeton, 1981)Google Scholar
Weichmann, I. and Grupe, G., ‘Detection of Yersinia pestis in two early medieval skeletal finds from Aschheim (Upper Bavaria, 6th century AD)’, American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 126 (2005)Google Scholar
Wells, P. S., The barbarians speak: How the conquered peoples shaped Roman Europe (Princeton and Oxford, 1999)
Wenke, R. J., ‘Imperial investments and agricultural development in Parthian and Sasanian Khūzistān: 150 BC to AD 640’, Mesopotamia, 10–11 (1975/6) –221.Google Scholar
Wenke, R. J., ‘Western Iran in the Partho-Sasanian period: The imperial transformation’, in Hole, F. (ed.), The archaeology of western Iran (Washington, DC, and London, 1987), 257–8, 261Google Scholar
Wheatley, P., The places where men pray together: Cities in Islamic lands, seventh through the tenth centuries, Chicago, 2001.
Whitcomb, D., Before the roses and nightingales: Excavations at Qasr-i Abu Nasr, Old Shiraz (New York, 1985), p.
Whitehouse, D., ‘Abbasid maritime trade: Archaeology and the age of expansion’, Rivista degli Studi Orientale, 59 (1985), p.Google Scholar
Whittaker, C. R., ‘Rural life in the later Roman empire’, in Cameron, A.and Garnsey, P. (eds.), The Cambridge ancient history, vol. XIII: The late empire, AD 337–425, Cambridge, 1998 –311.Google Scholar
Whittow, M., ‘Ruling the late Roman and early Byzantine city: A continuous history’, Past and Present, 129 (1990) –29.Google Scholar
Wickham, C. J. Framing the early Middle Ages: Europe and the Mediterranean, 400–800, Oxford, 2005.
Wiesehöfer, J., Ancient Persia from 550 BC to 650 AD (London and New York, 1996) –91
Wilkinson, T. J., Archaeological landscapes of the Near East, Tucson, 2003.
Wilkinson, T. J., Town and country in southeastern Anatolia, 2 vols. (Chicago, 1990), vol. I –28
Williams, T., Kurbansakhatov, K. et al., ‘The ancient Merv project, Turkmenistan: Preliminary report on the first season (2001)’, Iran, 40 (2002) –41.Google Scholar
Williams, T., Kurbansakhatov, K. et al., ‘The ancient Merv project, Turkmenistan: Preliminary report on the second season (2002)’, Iran, 41 (2003).Google Scholar
Yarshater, E. (ed.), The Cambridge history of Iran, vol. III: The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian periods, Cambridge, 1983.
Zuckerman, C., Du village à l’empire: Autour du registre fiscal d’Aphroditô (525/526) (Paris, 2004)

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure coreplatform@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×