Adler, A. (1943). Neuropsychiatric complications in victims of Boston’s Cocoanut Grove disaster. Journal of the American Psychiatric Association, 123, 1098–1101.Google Scholar

American Psychiatric Association (1980). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (3rd ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.Google Scholar

American Psychiatric Association (1994). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.Google Scholar

American Psychiatric Association (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental Disorders (5th ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.Google Scholar

Arata, C. M., Picou, J. S., Johnson, G. D., & McNally, T. S. (2000). Coping with technological disaster: An application of the conservation of resources model to the Exxon Valdez oil spill. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 13, 23–39.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Bartone, P. T., & Wright, K. M. (1990). Grief and group recovery following a military air disaster. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 3, 523–539.Google Scholar

Becker, S. M. (2005). Addressing the psychosocial and communication challenges posed by radiological/nuclear terrorism: Key developments since NCRP Report No. 138. Health Physics, 89, 521–530.Google Scholar

Boscarino, J. A., Adams, R. E., & Galea, S. (2006). Alcohol use in New York after the terrorist attacks: A study of the effects of psychological trauma on drinking behavior. Addictive Behaviors, 31, 606–621.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Bravo, M., Rubio-Stipec, M., Canino, G. J., Woodbury, M. A., & Ribera, J. C. (1990). The psychological sequelae of disaster stress prospectively and retrospectively evaluated. American Journal of Community Psychology, 18, 661–680.Google Scholar

Breslau, N., Davis, G. C., & Andreski, A. (1995). Risk factors for PTSD-related traumatic events: A prospective analysis. American Journal of Psychiatry, 152, 529–535.Google Scholar

Breslau, N., Davis, G. C., Andreski, P., & Peterson, E. (1991). Traumatic events and posttraumatic stress disorder in an urban population of young adults. Archives of General Psychiatry, 48, 216–222.Google Scholar

Breslau, N., Davis, G. C., Peterson, E. L., & Schultz, L. R. (2000). A second look at comorbidity in victims of trauma: The posttraumatic stress disorder-major depression connection. Biological Psychiatry, 48, 902–909.Google Scholar

Breslau, N., Davis, G. C., & Schultz, L. R. (2003). Posttraumatic stress disorder and the incidence of nicotine, alcohol, and other drug disorders in persons who have experienced trauma. Archives of General Psychiatry, 60, 289–294.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Breslau, N., Lucia, V. C., & Davis, G. C. (2004). Partial PTSD versus full PTSD: An empirical examination of associated impairment. Psychological Medicine, 34, 1205–1214.Google Scholar

Bromet, E. J. (2014). Emotional consequences of nuclear power plant disasters. Health Physics, 106, 206–210.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Bromet, E. J., Havenaar, J. M., & Guey, L. T. (2011). A 25 year retrospective review of the psychological consequences of the Chernobyl accident. Clinical Oncology, 23, 297–305.Google Scholar

Bryant, R. A. (2011). Acute stress disorder as a predictor of posttraumatic stress disorder: A systematic review. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 72, 233–239.Google Scholar

Canino, G., Bravo, M., Rubio-Stipec, M., & Woodbury, M. (1990). The impact of disaster on mental health: Prospective and retrospective analyses. International Journal of Mental Health, 19, 51–69.Google Scholar

Cao, H., McFarlane, A. C., & Klimidis, S. (2003). Prevalence of psychiatric disorder following the 1988 Yun Nan (China) earthquake – the first 5-month period. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 38, 204–212.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Cerda, M., Tracy, M., & Galea, S. (2011). A prospective population based study of changes in alcohol use and binge drinking after a mass traumatic event. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 115, 1–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Crompton, R., & McAneney, J. (2008). The cost of natural disasters in Australia: The case for disaster risk reduction. Australian Journal of Emergency Management, 23, 43–46.Google Scholar

Cutter, S. L., & Emrich, C. (2005). Are natural hazards and disaster losses in the U.S. increasing? Eos, Transactions, American Geophysical Union, 86, 381–396.Google Scholar

David, D., Mellman, T. A., Mendoza, L. M., Kulick-Bell, R., Ironson, G., & Schneiderman, N. (1996). Psychiatric morbidity following Hurricane Andrew. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 9, 607–612.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Dieltjens, T., Moonens, I., Van, P. K., De, B. E., & Vandekerckhove, P. (2014). A systematic literature search on psychological first aid: Lack of evidence to develop guidelines. Public Library of Science One, 9, e114714.Google Scholar

Difede, J., Apfeldorf, W. J., Cloitre, M., Spielman, L. A., & Perry, S. W. (1997). Acute psychiatric responses to the explosion at the World Trade Center: A case series. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 185, 519–522.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Dodgen, D., Norwood, A. E., Becker, S. M., Perez, J. T., & Hansen, C. K. (2011). Social, psychological, and behavioral responses to a nuclear detonation in a US city: Implications for health care planning and delivery. Disaster Medicine and Public Health Preparedness, 5 (Suppl 1), S54–S64.Google Scholar

Federal Register (2016). 28 CFR 0.85 – General functions. Legal Information Institute. Available: https://www.law.cornell.edu/cfr/text/28/0.85. Accessed on 5/18/2016.Google Scholar

Fitch, T., Villanueva, G., Quadir, M. M., Sagiraju, H. K., & Alamgir, H. (2015). The prevalence and risk factors of post-traumatic stress disorder among workers injured in Rana Plaza building collapse in Bangladesh. American Journal of Industrial Medicine, 58, 756–763.Google Scholar

Fullerton, C. S., Ursano, R. J., & Wang, L. (2004). Acute stress disorder, posttraumatic stress disorder, and depression in disaster or rescue workers. American Journal of Psychiatry, 161, 1370–1376.Google Scholar

Galea, S., Ahern, J., Resnick, H., Kilpatrick, D., Bucuvalas, M., Gold, J. et al. (2002). Psychological sequelae of the September 11 terrorist attacks in New York City. New England Journal of Medicine, 346, 982–987.Google Scholar

Goto, A., Bromet, E. J., & Fujimori, K. (2015). Immediate effects of the Fukushima nuclear power plant disaster on depressive symptoms among mothers with infants: A prefectural-wide cross-sectional study from the Fukushima Health Management Survey. BMC Psychiatry, 15, 59.Google Scholar

Green, B. L., Lindy, J. D., Grace, M. C., Gleser, G. C., Leonard, A. C., Korol, M. et al. (1990). Buffalo Creek survivors in the second decade: Stability of stress symptoms. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 60, 43–54.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Hansen, M., Armour, C., Wang, L., Elklit, A., & Bryant, R. A. (2015). Assessing possible DSM-5 ASD subtypes in a sample of victims meeting caseness for DSM-5 ASD based on self-report following multiple forms of traumatic exposure. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 31, 84–89.Google Scholar

Helzer, J. E., Robins, L. N., & McEvoy, L. (1987). Post-traumatic stress disorder in the general population: Findings of the epidemiologic catchment area survey. New England Journal of Medicine, 317, 1630–1634.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Irmansyah, I., Dharmono, S., Maramis, A., & Minas, H. (2010). Determinants of psychological morbidity in survivors of the earthquake and tsunami in Aceh and Nias. International Journal of Mental Health Systems, 4, 8.Google Scholar

Johnson, S. D., North, C. S., & Smith, E. M. (2002). Psychiatric disorders among victims of a courthouse shooting spree: A three-year follow-up study. Community Mental Health Journal, 38, 181–194.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Joseph, S., Yule, W., Williams, R., & Hodgkinson, P. (1993). Increased substance use in survivors of the Herald of Free Enterprise disaster. British Journal of Medical Psychology, 66, 185–191.Google Scholar

Kaniasty, K., & Norris, F. H. (1993). A test of the social support deterioration model in the context of natural disaster. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64, 395–408.Google Scholar

Kaniasty, K., & Norris, F. H. (2008). Longitudinal linkages between perceived social support and posttraumatic stress symptoms: Sequential roles of social causation and social selection. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 21, 274–281.Google Scholar

Khantzian, E. J. (1997). The self-medication hypothesis of substance use disorders: A reconsideration and recent applications. Harvard Review of Psychiatry, 4, 231–244.Google Scholar

Kohn, R., Levav, I., Donaire, I., Machuca, M., & Tamashiro, R. (2005). Psychological and psychopathological reactions in Honduras following Hurricane Mitch: Implications for service planning. Revista Panamericana de Salud Pública, 18, 287–295.Google Scholar

Kramer, S. N. (1969). A Sumerian lamentation. In Pritchard, J. B. (Ed.), Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament (pp. 455–463). Trenton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar

Kron, W. (2000). Natural disasters: Lessons from the past – concerns for the future. The Geneva Papers on Risk and Insurance, 25, 570–581.Google Scholar

Lamberg, L. (2005). Terrorism assails nation’s psyche. Journal of the American Medical Association, 294, 544–546.Google Scholar

Lima, B. R., Chavez, H., Samaniego, N., & Pai, S. (1992). Psychiatric disorders among emotionally distressed disaster victims attending primary mental health clinics in Ecuador. Bulletin of the Pan American Health Organization, 26, 60–66.Google Scholar

Lima, B. R., Pai, S., Santacruz, H., Lozano, J., & Luna, J. (1987). Screening for the psychological consequences of a major disaster in a developing country: Armero, Colombia. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 76, 561–567.Google Scholar

Liu, B. R., Tarigan, L. H., Bromet, E. J., & Kim, H. (2014). World Trade Center disaster exposure-related probable posttraumatic stress disorder among responders and civilians: A meta-analysis. Public Library of Science One, 9, e101491.Google ScholarPubMed

Lowe, S. R., Tracy, M., Cerda, M., Norris, F. H., & Galea, S. (2013). Immediate and longer-term stressors and the mental health of Hurricane Ike survivors. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 26, 753–761.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Maes, M., Mylle, J., Delmeire, L., & Altamura, C. (2000). Psychiatric morbidity and comorbidity following accidental man-made traumatic events: Incidence and risk factors. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 250, 156–162.Google Scholar

Maes, M., Mylle, J., Delmeire, L., & Janca, A. (2001). Pre- and post-disaster negative life events in relation to the incidence and severity of post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychiatry Research, 105, 1–12.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Mak, I. W., Chu, C. M., Pan, P. C., Yiu, M. G., & Chan, V. L. (2009). Long-term psychiatric morbidities among SARS survivors. General Hospital Psychiatry, 31, 318–326.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Marcus, A. (2001). Attacks spark rise in substance abuse treatment; group says stress-related drug, alcohol problems will worsen. HealthScoutNews [On-line]. Available at: http://healingwellpsych.subportal.com/health/Drugs_Alcohol_Tobacco/Drug_Abuse/505078.htmlGoogle Scholar

McCormick, L. C., Tajeu, G. S., & Klapow, J. (2015). Mental health consequences of chemical and radiologic emergencies: A systematic review. Emergency Medical Clinics of North America, 33, 197–211.Google Scholar

McFarlane, A. (2004). The contribution of epidemiology to the study of traumatic stress. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 39, 874–882.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

McFarlane, A. C. (1998). Epidemiological evidence about the relationship between PTSD and alcohol abuse: The nature of the association. Addictive Behaviors, 23, 813–825.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

McFarlane, A. C., Clayer, J. R., & Bookless, C. L. (1997). Psychiatric morbidity following a natural disaster: An Australian bushfire. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 32, 261–268.Google Scholar

McFarlane, A. C., & Papay, P. (1992). Multiple diagnoses in posttraumatic stress disorder in the victims of a natural disaster. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 180, 498–504.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

McMillen, J. C. (1999). Better for it: How people benefit from adversity. Social Work, 44, 455–468.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

McMillen, J. C., North, C. S., & Smith, E. M. (2000). What parts of PTSD are normal: Intrusion, avoidance, or arousal? Data from the Northridge, California earthquake. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 13, 57–75.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

McMillen, J. C., Smith, E. M., & Fisher, R. H. (1997). Perceived benefit and mental health after three types of disaster. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychiatry, 6, 733–739.Google Scholar

McNally, R. J., Clancy, S. A., Schacter, D. L., & Pitman, R. K. (2000). Cognitive processing of trauma cues in adults reporting repressed, recovered, or continuous memories of childhood sexual abuse. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 109, 355–359.Google Scholar

Merskey, H. (1995). The Analysis of Hysteria: Understanding Conversion and Dissociation, (2nd ed.). London: Gaskell.Google Scholar

Meyer, E. C., Zimering, R., Daly, E., Knight, J., Kamholz, B. W., & Gulliver, S. B. (2012). Predictors of posttraumatic stress disorder and other psychological symptoms in trauma-exposed firefighters. Psychological Services, 9, 1–15.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Murthy, R. S. (2014). Mental health of survivors of 1984 Bhopal disaster: A continuing challenge. Industrial Psychiatry Journal, 23, 86–93.Google Scholar

National Academy of Sciences Institute of Medicine (2003). Preparing for the psychological consequences of terrorism: A public health strategy. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.Google Scholar

Norris, F. H., Friedman, M. J., Watson, P. J., Byrne, C. M., Diaz, E., & Kaniasty, K. (2002). 60,000 disaster victims speak: Part I. An empirical review of the empirical literature, 1981–2001. Psychiatry, 65, 207–239.Google Scholar

Norris, F. H., Sherrieb, K., & Pfefferbaum, B. (2011). Community resilience: Concepts, assessment, and implications for intervention. In Southwick, S. M., Litz, B. T., Charney, D., & Friedman, M. J. (Eds.), Resilience and Mental Health: Challenges Across the Lifespan (pp. 162–175). New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Norris, F. H., Stevens, S. P., Pfefferbaum, B., Wyche, K. F., & Pfefferbaum, R. L. (2008). Community resilience as a metaphor, theory, set of capacities, and strategy for disaster readiness. American Journal of Community Psychology, 41, 127–150.Google Scholar

North, C. S., Abbacchi, A., & Cloninger, C. R. (2012a). Personality and posttraumatic stress disorder among directly exposed survivors of the Oklahoma City bombing. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 53, 1–8.Google Scholar

North, C. S., Adinoff, B., Pollio, D. E., Kinge, S., Downs, D. L., & Pfefferbaum, B. (2013). Alcohol use disorders and drinking among survivors of the 9/11 attacks on the World Trade Center in New York City. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 5, 962–969.Google Scholar

North, C. S., & Hong, B. A. (2000). Project C.R.E.S.T.: A new model for mental health intervention after a community disaster. American Journal of Public Health, 90, 1–2.Google Scholar

North, C. S., Nixon, S. J., Shariat, S., Mallonee, S., McMillen, J. C., Spitznagel, E. L. et al. (1999). Psychiatric disorders among survivors of the Oklahoma City bombing. Journal of the American Medical Association, 282, 755–762.Google Scholar

North, C. S., & Oliver, J. (2013). Analysis of the longitudinal course of PTSD in 716 survivors of 10 disasters. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 48, 1189–1197.Google Scholar

North, C. S., Oliver, J., & Pandya, A. (2012b). Examining a comprehensive model of disaster-related PTSD in systematically studied survivors of ten disasters. American Journal of Public Health, 102, e40–e48.Google Scholar

North, C. S., & Pfefferbaum, B. (2002). Research on the mental health effects of terrorism. Journal of the American Medical Association, 288, 633–636.Google Scholar

North, C. S., & Pfefferbaum, B. (2013). Mental health response to community disasters: a systematic review. Journal of the American Medical Association, 310, 507–518.Google Scholar

North, C. S., Pfefferbaum, B., Kawasaki, A., Lee, S., & Spitznagel, E. L. (2011a). Psychosocial adjustment of directly exposed survivors 7 years after the Oklahoma City bombing. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 52, 1–8.Google Scholar

North, C. S., Pfefferbaum, B., Narayanan, P., Thielman, S., McCoy, G., Dumont, C. et al. (2005). Comparison of post-disaster psychiatric disorders after terrorist bombings in Nairobi and Oklahoma City. British Journal of Psychiatry, 186, 487–493.Google Scholar

North, C. S., Pfefferbaum, B., Vythilingam, M., Martin, G. J., Schorr, J. K., Boudreaux, A. S. et al. (2009a). Exposure to bioterrorism and mental health response among staff on Capitol Hill. Biosecurity and Bioterrorism, 7, 379–388.Google Scholar

North, C. S., Pollio, D. E., Hong, B. A., Pandya, A., Smith, R. P., & Pfefferbaum, B. (2015). The postdisaster prevalence of major depression relative to PTSD in survivors of the 9/11 attacks on the World Trade Center selected from affected workplaces. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 60, 119–125.Google Scholar

North, C. S., Pollio, D. E., Smith, R. P., King, R. V., Pandya, A., Surís, A. M. et al. (2011b). Trauma exposure and posttraumatic stress disorder among employees of New York City companies affected by the September 11, 2001 attacks on the World Trade Center. Disaster Medicine and Public Health Preparedness, 5, S205–S213.Google Scholar

North, C. S., Ringwalt, C. L., Downs, D., Derzon, J., & Galvin, D. (2011c). Postdisaster course of alcohol use disorders in systematically studied survivors of 10 disasters. Archives of General Psychiatry, 68, 173–180.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

North, C. S., Smith, E. M., & Spitznagel, E. L. (1994). Posttraumatic stress disorder in survivors of a mass shooting. American Journal of Psychiatry, 151, 82–88.Google Scholar

North, C. S., Spitznagel, E. L., & Smith, E. M. (2001). A prospective study of coping after exposure to a mass murder episode. Annals of Clinical Psychiatry, 13, 81–87.Google Scholar

North, C. S., Surís, A. M., Davis, M., & Smith, R. P. (2009b). Toward validation of the diagnosis of posttraumatic stress disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 166, 34–41.Google Scholar

North, C. S., Tivis, L., McMillen, J. C., Pfefferbaum, B., Spitznagel, E. L., Cox, J. et al. (2002). Psychiatric disorders in rescue workers after the Oklahoma City bombing. American Journal of Psychiatry, 159, 857–859.Google Scholar

Onder, E., Tural, U., Aker, T., Kilic, C., & Erdogan, S. (2006). Prevalence of psychiatric disorders three years after the 1999 earthquake in Turkey: Marmara Earthquake Survey (MES). Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 41, 868–874.Google Scholar

Palinkas, L. A., Petterson, J. S., Russell, J., & Downs, M. A. (1993). Community patterns of psychiatric disorders after the Exxon Valdez oil spill. American Journal of Psychiatry, 150, 1517–1523.Google Scholar

Pfefferbaum, B., & Doughty, D. E. (2001). Increased alcohol use in a treatment sample of Oklahoma City bombing victims. Psychiatry, 64, 296–303.Google Scholar

Prigerson, H. G., Maciejewski, P. K., & Rosenheck, R. A. (2001). Combat trauma: Trauma with highest risk of delayed onset and unresolved posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms, unemployment, and abuse among men. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 189, 99–108.Google Scholar

Ramsay, R., Gorst-Unsworth, C., & Turner, S. (1993). Psychiatric morbidity in survivors of organised state violence including torture. British Journal of Psychiatry, 162, 55–59.Google Scholar

Raphael, B., & Middleton, W. (1987). Mental health responses in a decade of disasters: Australia, 1974–1983. Hospital and Community Psychiatry, 38, 1331–1337.Google Scholar

Robins, L. N., Fishbach, R. L., Smith, E. M., Cottler, L. B., Solomon, S. D., & Goldring, E. (1986). Impact of disaster on previously assessed mental health. In Shore, J. H. (Ed.), Disaster stress studies: New methods and findings (pp. 22–48). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.Google Scholar

Shalev, A. Y., Tuval-Mashiach, R., & Hadar, H. (2004). Posttraumatic stress disorder as a result of mass trauma. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 65 (Suppl 1), 4–10.Google Scholar

Shimizu, S., Aso, K., Noda, T., Ryukei, S., Kochi, Y., & Yamamoto, N. (2000). Natural disasters and alcohol consumption in a cultural context: The great Hanshin earthquake in Japan. Addiction, 95, 529–536.Google Scholar

Sims, A., & Sims, D. (1998). The phenomenology of post-traumatic stress disorder: A symptomatic study of 70 victims of psychological trauma. Psychopathology, 31, 96–112.Google Scholar

Skogstad, L., Fjetland, A. M., & Ekeberg, O. (2015). Exposure and posttraumatic stress symptoms among first responders working in proximity to the terror sites in Norway on July 22, 2011 – a cross sectional study. Scandinavian Journal of Trauma, Resuscitation and Emergency Medicine, 23, 23.Google Scholar

Smith, D. W., Christiansen, E. H., Vincent, R., & Hann, N. E. (1999). Population effects of the bombing of Oklahoma City. Journal of the Oklahoma State Medical Association, 92, 193–198.Google Scholar

Smith, E. M., & North, C. S. (1993). Post-traumatic stress disorder in natural disasters and technological accidents. In Wilson, J. P. & Raphael, B. (Eds.), International Handbook of Traumatic Stress Syndromes (pp. 405–419). New York: Plenum.Google Scholar

Smith, E. M., Robins, L. N., Przybeck, T. R., Goldring, E., & Solomon, S. D. (1986). Psychosocial consequences of a disaster. In Shore, J. H. (Ed.), Disaster stress studies: New methods and findings (pp. 49–76). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.Google Scholar

Tennant, C., Goulston, K., & Dent, O. (1986). Australian prisoners of war of the Japanese: Post-war psychiatric hospitalization and psychological morbidity. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 20, 334–340.Google Scholar

Tracy, M., Norris, F. H., & Galea, S. (2011). Differences in the determinants of posttraumatic stress disorder and depression after a mass traumatic event. Depression and Anxiety, 28, 666–675.Google Scholar

Ursano, R. J., Fullerton, C. S., Wright, K. M., McCarroll, J. E., Norwood, A. E., & Dinneen, M. M. (1992). Disaster workers: Trauma and social support. Bethesda, MD: Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences and Walter Reed Army Institute of Research.Google Scholar

van der Velden, P. G., van, L. P., Benight, C. C., & Eckhardt, T. (2012). Mental health problems among search and rescue workers deployed in the Haiti earthquake 2010: A pre-post comparison. Psychiatry Research, 198, 100–105.Google Scholar

Viel, J. F., Curbakova, E., Eglite, M., Zvagule, T., & Vincent, C. (1997). Risk factors for long-term mental and psychosomatic distress in Latvian Chernobyl liquidators. Environmental Health Perspectives, 105, 1539–1544.Google Scholar

Vlahov, D., Galea, S., Ahern, J., Resnick, H., & Kilpatrick, D. (2004). Sustained increased consumption of cigarettes, alcohol, and marijuana among Manhattan residents after September 11, 2001. American Journal of Public Health, 94, 253–254.Google Scholar

Vlahov, D., Galea, S., Resnick, H., Ahern, J., Boscarino, J. A., Bucavalas, M. et al. (2002). Increased use of cigarettes, alcohol, and marijuana among Manhattan, New York, residents after the September 11th terrorist attacks. American Journal of Epidemiology, 155, 988–996.Google Scholar

Wang, X., Gao, L., Shinfuku, N., Zhang, H., Zhao, C., & Shen, Y. (2000). Longitudinal study of earthquake-related PTSD in a randomly selected community sample in north China. American Journal of Psychiatry, 157, 1260–1266.Google Scholar

Watson, P. J., Brymer, M. J., & Bonanno, G. A. (2011). Postdisaster psychological intervention since 9/11. American Psychologist, 66, 482–494.Google Scholar

Weisæth, L. (2001). Acute posttraumatic stress: Nonacceptance of early intervention. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 62, 35–40.Google Scholar

Whitman, J. B., North, C. S., Downs, D. L., & Spitznagel, E. L. (2013). A prospective study of the onset of PTSD symptoms in the first month after trauma exposure. Annals of Clinical Psychiatry, 25, E8–E17.Google Scholar

World Health Organization (1991). Psychosocial guidelines for preparedness and intervention in disaster (Rep. No. MNH/PSF/91.3). Geneva: World Health Organization.Google Scholar

Wyche, K. F., Pfefferbaum, R. L., Pfefferbaum, B., Norris, F. H., Wisnieski, D., & Younger, H. (2011). Exploring community resilience in workforce communities of first responders serving Katrina survivors. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 81, 18–30.Google Scholar

Yehuda, R., McFarlane, A. C., & Shalev, A. Y. (1998). Predicting the development of posttraumatic stress disorder from the acute response to a traumatic event. Biological Psychiatry, 44, 1305–1313.Google Scholar

Zhou, X., Kang, L., Sun, X., Song, H., Mao, W., Huang, X. et al. (2013). Prevalence and risk factors of post-traumatic stress disorder among adult survivors six months after the Wenchuan earthquake. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 54, 493–499.Google Scholar

Barnett, E., & Casper, M. (2001). A definition of “social environment.” American Journal of Public Health, 91, 465.Google Scholar

Buldyrev, S.V., Parshani, R., Paul, G., Stanley, H. E., & Havlin, S. (2010). Catastrophic cascade of failures in interdependent networks. Nature, 464, 1025–1028.Google Scholar

Butler, A. S., Panzer, A. M., Goldfrank, L. R., Committee on Responding to the Psychological Consequences of Terrorism, Board on Neuroscience and Behavioral Health, Institute of Medicine (2003). Preparing for the psychological consequences of terrorism: A public health strategy. Washington, DC: National Academies Press.Google Scholar

Cavallo, A. (2010). Risk management in complex projects: An exploratory study to managing unknown unknowns in uncertain environments. Saarbruecken, Germany: Lambert Academic Publishing.Google Scholar

Cavallo, A. (2014). Integrating disaster preparedness and resilience: A complex approach using system of systems. Australian Journal of Emergency Management, 29, 46–51.Google Scholar

Cavallo, A., & Ireland, V. (2014). Preparing for complex interdependent risks: A system of systems approach to building disaster resilience. International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction, 9, 181–193.Google Scholar

Daley, R. W., Brown, S., Archer, P., Kruger, E., Jordan, F., Batts, D., et al. (2005). Risk of tornado-related death and injury in Oklahoma, May 3, 1999. American Journal of Epidemiology, 161, 1144–1150.Google Scholar

Diez-Roux, A. V. (2001). Investigating neighborhood and area effects on health. American Journal of Public Health, 91, 1783–1789.Google Scholar

Dilley, M., Chen, R. S., Deichmann, U., Lerner-Lam, A. L., Arnold, M., Agwe, J., et al. (2005). Natural disaster hotspots: A global risk analysis. Washington, DC: World Bank Group.Google Scholar

Field, C. B., Barros, V., Stocker, T. F., Qin, D., Dokken, D. J., Ebi, K. L., et al. (Eds.). (2012). Managing the risks of extreme events and disasters to advance climate change adaptation: Special report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Fissel, A., & Haddix, K. (2004). Traditional healer organizations in Uganda should contribute to AIDS debate. Anthropology News, 45, 10–11.Google Scholar

Fothergill, A., & Peek, L. A. (2004). Poverty and disasters in the United States: A review of recent sociological findings. Natural Hazards, 32, 89–110.Google Scholar

Galea, S., & Resnick, H. (2005). Posttraumatic stress disorder in the general population after mass terrorist incidents: Considerations about the nature of exposure. CNS Spectrums, 10, 107–115.Google Scholar

Gillen, M. (2005). Urban governance and vulnerability: Exploring the tensions and contradictions in Sydney’s response to bushfire threat. Cities, 22, 55–64.Google Scholar

Goenjian, A. K., Molina, L., Steinberg, A. M., Fairbanks, L. A., Alvarez, M. L., Goenjian, H. A., et al. (2001). Posttraumatic stress and depressive reactions among Nicaraguan adolescents after Hurricane Mitch. American Journal of Psychiatry, 158, 788–794.Google Scholar

Grieger, T. A., Fullerton, C. S., Ursano, R. J., & Reeves, J. J. (2003). Acute stress disorder, alcohol use, and perception of safety among hospital staff after sniper attacks. Psychiatric Services, 54, 1383–1387.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Guha-Sapir, D., Hargitt, D., & Hoyois, P. (2004). Thirty years of natural disasters 1974–2003: The numbers. Louvainla-Neuve, Belgium: Presses Universitaires de Louvain; Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters (CRED).Google Scholar

Guha-Sapir, D., Hoyois, P., & Below, R. (2014). Annual disaster statistical review 2013: The numbers and trends. Brussels, Belgium: Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters (CRED).Google Scholar

Helbing, D. (2013). Globally networked risks and how to respond. Nature, 497, 51–59.Google Scholar

Helbing, D., Ammoser, H., & Kühnert, C. (2005). Disasters as extreme events and the importance of network interactions for disaster response management. In Albeverio, S., Jentsch, V., & Kantz, H. (Eds.), The unimaginable and unpredictable: Extreme events in nature and society (pp. 319–348). Berlin, Germany: Springer.Google Scholar

Helbing, D., Brockmann, D., Chadefaux, T., Donnay, K., Blanke, U., Woolley-Meza, O., et al. (2015). Saving human lives: What complexity science and information systems can contribute. Journal of Statistical Physics, 158, 735–781.Google Scholar

Jernigan, D. B., Raghunathan, P. L., Bell, B. P., Brechner, R., Bresnitz, E. A., Butler, J. C., et al. (2002). Investigation of bioterrorism-related anthrax, United States, 2001: Epidemiologic findings. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 10, 1019–1028.Google Scholar

Johnson, N. (2007). Simply complexity: A clear guide to complexity theory. Oxford: Oneworld Publications.Google Scholar

Kaniasty, K., & Norris, F. H. (1993). A test of the support deterioration model in the context of natural disaster. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64, 395–408.Google Scholar

Kaniasty, K., & Norris, F. H. (2004). Social support in the aftermath of disasters, catastrophes, and acts of terrorism: Altruistic, overwhelmed, uncertain, antagonistic, and patriotic communities. In Ursano, R. J., Norwood, A. E., & Fullerton, C. S. (Eds.), Bioterrorism: Psychological and public health interventions (pp. 200–229). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Kaplan, G. A. (1999). What is the role of the social environment in understanding inequalities in health? Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 896, 116–119.Google Scholar

Kawachi, I., & Berkman, L. F. (2001). Social ties and mental health. Journal of Urban Health, 78, 458–467.Google Scholar

Kindig, D., & Stoddart, G. (2003). What is population health? American Journal of Public Health, 93, 380–383.Google Scholar

Kirschenbaum, A. (2004). Chaos organization and disaster management. New York: Marcel Dekker.Google Scholar

Krieger, N. (2001). Theories for social epidemiology in the 21st century: An ecosocial perspective. International Journal of Epidemiology, 30, 668–677.Google Scholar

Kumar-Range, S. (2001). Environmental management and disaster risk reduction: A gender perspective. United Nations: Division for the Advancement of Women (DAW). Retrieved from January 6, 2017, http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/csw/env_manage/documents/BP1-2001Nov04.pdf.Google Scholar

Lorenz, J., Battiston, S., & Schweitzer, F. (2009). Systemic risk in a unifying framework for cascading processes on networks. European Physical Journal B, 71, 441–460.Google Scholar

Marsella, A. J., & Christopher, M. A. (2004). Ethnocultural considerations in disasters: An overview of research, issues, and directions. Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 27, 521–539.Google Scholar

McMichael, A. J. (1999). Prisoners of the proximate: Loosening the constraints on epidemiology in an age of change. American Journal of Epidemiology, 149, 887–897.Google Scholar

Nates, J. L., & Moyer, V. A. (2005). Lessons from hurricane Katrina, tsunamis, and other disasters. Lancet, 366, 1144–1146.Google Scholar

Norris, F. H., Friedman, M. J., Watson, P. J., Byrne, C. M., Diaz, E., & Kaniasty, K. (2002a). 60,000 disaster victims speak: Part 1. An empirical review of the empirical literature, 1981–2001. Psychiatry, 65, 207–239.Google Scholar

Norris, F. H., Friedman, M. J., & Watson, P. J. (2002b). 60,000 disaster victims speak: Part 2. Summary and implications of the disaster mental health research. Psychiatry, 65, 240–260.Google Scholar

Norris, F. H., & Kaniasty, K. (1996). Received and perceived social support in times of stress: A test of the social support deterioration deterrence model. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71, 498–511.Google Scholar

Pfefferbaum, B. J., Reissman, D. B., Pfefferbaum, R. L., Klomp, R. W., & Gurwitch, R. H. (2007). Building resilience to mass trauma events. In Doll, L. S., Bonzo, S. E., Mercy, J. A., & Sleet, D. E. (Eds.), Handbook of injury and violence prevention (pp. 347–358). New York: Springer Publishing.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Pickett, K. E., & Pearl, M. (2001). Multilevel analyses of neighborhood socioecological context and health outcomes: a critical review. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 55, 111–122.Google Scholar

Quarantelli, E. L. (2000). Emergencies, disasters and catastrophes are different phenomena. Retrieved from January 6, 2017 http://udspace.udel.edu/bitstream/handle/19716/674/PP304.pdf?sequence=1Google Scholar

Quarantelli, E. L. (2006). Catastrophes are different from disasters: some implications for crisis planning and managing drawn from Katrina. The Social Science Research Council. Understanding Katrina: perspectives from the social sciences. Retrieved from January 6, 2017 http://understandingkatrina.ssrc.org/Quarantelli/.Google Scholar

Ramalingam, B., Jones, H., Toussainte, R., & Young, J. (2008). Exploring the science of complexity: Ideas and implications for development and humanitarian efforts (2nd ed.). London: Overseas Development Institute.Google Scholar

Ramirez, M., & Peek-Asa, C. (2005). Epidemiology of traumatic injuries from earthquakes. Epidemiologic Reviews, 27, 47–55.Google Scholar

Raphael, B. (2000). Disaster mental health response handbook: An educational resource for mental health professionals involved in disaster management. Sydney, NSW: NSW Health.Google Scholar

Reissman, D. B. (2004). New roles for mental and behavioral health experts to enhance emergency preparedness and response readiness. Psychiatry, 67, 118–122.Google Scholar

Reissman, D. B., Spencer, S., Tannielian, T. L., & Stein, B. D. (2005). Integrating behavioral aspects into community preparedness and response systems. In Danieli, Y., Brom, D., & Sills, J. (Eds.), The trauma of terrorism: Sharing knowledge and shared care, an international handbook (pp. 707–720). New York: Haworth Press.Google Scholar

Sarewitz, D., & PielkeJr., R. (2001). Extreme events: A research and policy framework for disasters in context. International Geology Review 43, 406–418.Google Scholar

Shultz, J. M., Espinel, Z., Galea, S., & Reissman, D. B. (2007). Disaster ecology: Implications for disaster psychiatry. In Ursano, R. J., Fullerton, C. S., Weisaeth, L., & Raphael, B. (Eds.), Textbook of disaster psychiatry (pp. 69–96). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Susser, M., & Susser, E. (1996). Choosing a future for epidemiology: II. From black boxes to Chinese boxes and eco-epidemiology. American Journal of Public Health, 86, 674–677.Google Scholar

United Nations (2015). Sendai framework for disaster risk reduction: 2015–2030. Geneva: United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNISDR). Retrieved from January 6, 2017 http://www.unisdr.org/we/inform/publications/43291Google Scholar

United Nations Development Programme (2004). Reducing disaster risk: A challenge for development. United Nations Development Programme, Bureau for Crisis Prevention and Recovery. Retrieved from January 6, 2017 http://www.preventionweb.net/files/1096_rdrenglish.pdfGoogle Scholar

Wahlstrom, M., & Guha-Sapir, D. (2015). The human cost of weather-related disasters, 1995–2015. Brussels: Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters (CRED) and United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNISDR).Google Scholar

World Health Organization (2002). Gender and health in disasters. Retrieved from January 6, 2017 http://www.who.int/gender-equity-rights/knowledge/a85575/en/Google Scholar

World Health Organization (2015). Health in 2015: from MDGs (Millennium Development Goals) to SDGs (Sustainable Development Goals). Geneva: WHO Press. Retrieved from January 6, 2017 http://www.who.int/gho/publications/mdgs-sdgs/en/Google Scholar

Admon, R., Milad, M. R., & Hendler, T. (2013). A causal model of post-traumatic stress disorder: Disentangling predisposed from acquired neural abnormalities. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 17, 337–347.Google Scholar

Amos, T., Stein, D. J., & Ipser, J. C. (2014). Pharmacological interventions for preventing post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 8, Cd006239.Google Scholar

Ashley-Koch, A. E., Garrett, M. E., Gibson, J., Liu, Y., Dennis, M. F., Kimbrel, N. A. et al. (2015). Genome-wide association study of posttraumatic stress disorder in a cohort of Iraq-Afghanistan era veterans. Journal of Affective Disordors, 184, 225–234.Google Scholar

Barsaglini, A., Sartori, G., Benetti, S., Pettersson-Yeo, W., & Mechelli, A. (2014). The effects of psychotherapy on brain function: A systematic and critical review. Progress in Neurobiology, 114, 1–14.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Boccia, M., D’Amico, S., Bianchini, F., Marano, A., Giannini, A. M., & Piccardi, L. (2016). Different neural modifications underpin PTSD after different traumatic events: An fMRI meta-analytic study. Brain Imaging and Behavior, 10, 226–237.Google Scholar

Bremner, J. D., Randall, P., Scott, T. M., Bronen, R. A., Seibyl, J. P., Southwick, S. M. et al. (1995). MRI-based measurement of hippocampal volume in patients with combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 152, 973–981.Google Scholar

Caspi, A., Sugden, K., Moffitt, T. E., Taylor, A., Craig, I. W., Harrington, H. et al. (2003). Influence of life stress on depression: Moderation by a polymorphism in the 5-HTT gene. Science, 301, 386–389.Google Scholar

Chen, Y., Rex, C. S., Rice, C. J., Dube, C. M., Gall, C. M., Lynch, G. et al. (2010). Correlated memory defects and hippocampal dendritic spine loss after acute stress involve corticotropin-releasing hormone signaling. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 107, 13123–13128.Google Scholar

Daniels, J. K., Frewen, P., Theberge, J., & Lanius, R. A. (2016). Structural brain aberrations associated with the dissociative subtype of post-traumatic stress disorder. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavia, 133, 232–240.Google Scholar

Denson, T. F., Pedersen, W. C., Ronquillo, J., & Nandy, A. S. (2009). The angry brain: Neural correlates of anger, angry rumination, and aggressive personality. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 21, 734–744.Google Scholar

Department of Veterans Affairs/Department of Defense (2010). VA/DoD clinical practice guideline for the management of posttraumatic stress, version 2.0. Washington, DC: Veterans Health Administration, Department of Defense.Google Scholar

Enman, N. M., Sabban, E. L., McGonigle, P., & Van Bockstaele, E. J. (2015). Targeting the neuropeptide Y system in stress-related psychiatric disorders. Neurobiology of Stress, 1, 33–43.Google Scholar

Feder, A., Parides, M. K., Murrough, J. W., Perez, A. M., Morgan, J. E., Saxena, S. et al. (2014). Efficacy of intravenous ketamine for treatment of chronic posttraumatic stress disorder: A randomized clinical trial. JAMA Psychiatry, 71, 681–688.Google Scholar

Fitzgerald, P. J., Giustino, T. F., Seemann, J. R., & Maren, S. (2015). Noradrenergic blockade stabilizes prefrontal activity and enables fear extinction under stress. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 112, E3729–E3737.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Fletcher, S., Creamer, M., & Forbes, D. (2010). Preventing post traumatic stress disorder: Are drugs the answer? Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 44, 1064–1071.Google Scholar

Freedman, S. A., Brandes, D., Peri, T., & Shalev, A. (1999). Predictors of chronic post-traumatic stress disorder: A prospective study. British Journal of Psychiatry, 174, 353–359.Google Scholar

Friedman, M. J., & Davidson, J. R. T. (2014). Pharmacotherapy for PTSD. In Friedman, M. J., Keane, T. M., & Resick, P. A. (Eds.), Handbook of PTSD: Science and practice, second edition (pp. 482–501). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar

Galatzer-Levy, I. R., Steenkamp, M. M., Brown, A. D., Qian, M., Inslicht, S., Henn-Haase, C. et al. (2014). Cortisol response to an experimental stress paradigm prospectively predicts long-term distress and resilience trajectories in response to active police service. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 56, 36–42.Google Scholar

Highland, K. B., Costanzo, M. E., Jovanovic, T., Norrholm, S. D., Ndiongue, R. B., Reinhardt, B. J. et al. (2015). Catecholamine responses to virtual combat: Implications for post-traumatic stress and dimensions of functioning. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, 256.Google Scholar

Honsberger, M. J., Taylor, J. R., & Corlett, P. R. (2015). Memories reactivated under ketamine are subsequently stronger: A potential pre-clinical behavioral model of psychosis. Schizophrenia Research, 164, 227–233.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Inslicht, S. S., Otte, C., McCaslin, S. E., Apfel, B. A., Henn-Haase, C., Metzler, T. et al. (2011). Cortisol awakening response prospectively predicts peritraumatic and acute stress reactions in police officers. Biological Psychiatry, 70, 1055–1062.Google Scholar

Jetly, R., Heber, A., Fraser, G., & Boisvert, D. (2015). The efficacy of nabilone, a synthetic cannabinoid, in the treatment of PTSD-associated nightmares: A preliminary randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled cross-over design study. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 51, 585–588.Google Scholar

Kassem, M. S., Lagopoulos, J., Stait-Gardner, T., Price, W. S., Chohan, T. W., Arnold, J. C. et al. (2013). Stress-induced grey matter loss determined by MRI is primarily due to loss of dendrites and their synapses. Molecular Neurobiology, 47, 645–661.Google Scholar

Kaufman, J., Yang, B. Z., Douglas-Palumberi, H., Houshyar, S., Lipschitz, D., Krystal, J. H. et al. (2004). Social supports and serotonin transporter gene moderate depression in maltreated children. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 101, 17316–17321.Google Scholar

Kim, T. Y., Chung, H. G., Shin, H. S., Kim, S. J., Choi, J. H., Chung, M. Y. et al. (2013). Apolipoprotein E gene polymorphism, alcohol use, and their interactions in combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder. Depression and Anxiety, 30, 1194–1201.Google Scholar

Krystal, J. H., & Neumeister, A. (2009). Noradrenergic and serotonergic mechanisms in the neurobiology of posttraumatic stress disorder and resilience. Brain Research, 1293, 13–23.Google Scholar

Lanius, R. A., Vermetten, E., Loewenstein, R. J., Brand, B., Schmahl, C., Bremner, J. D. et al. (2010). Emotion modulation in PTSD: Clinical and neurobiological evidence for a dissociative subtype. American Journal of Psychiatry, 167, 640–647.Google Scholar

LeDoux, J. E. (2014). Coming to terms with fear. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 111, 2871–2878.Google Scholar

Liberzon, I., & Sripada, C. S. (2008). The functional neuroanatomy of PTSD: A critical review. Progressive Brain Research, 167, 151–169.Google Scholar

Murrough, J. W., Henry, S., Hu, J., Gallezot, J. D., Planeta-Wilson, B., Neumaier, J. F. et al. (2011). Reduced ventral striatal/ventral pallidal serotonin1B receptor binding potential in major depressive disorder. Psychopharmacology, 213, 547–553.Google Scholar

Nash, M., Galatzer-Levy, I., Krystal, J. H., Duman, R., & Neumeister, A. (2014). Neurocircuitry and neuroplasticity in PTSD. In Friedman, M. J., Keane, T. M., & Resick, P. A. (Eds.), Handbook of PTSD: Science and practice (2nd ed., pp. 251–274). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar

O’Doherty, D. C., Chitty, K. M., Saddiqui, S., Bennett, M. R., & Lagopoulos, J. (2015). A systematic review and meta-analysis of magnetic resonance imaging measurement of structural volumes in posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychiatry Research, 232, 1–33.Google Scholar

Pervanidou, P., & Chrousos, G. P. (2010). Neuroendocrinology of post-traumatic stress disorder. Progress in Brain Research, 182, 149–160.Google Scholar

Petrakis, I. L., Desai, N., Gueorguieva, R., Arias, A., O’Brien, E., Jane, J. S. et al. (2016). Prazosin for veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder and comorbid alcohol dependence: A clinical trial. Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research, 40, 178–186.Google Scholar

Pietrzak, R. H., Henry, S., Southwick, S. M., Krystal, J. H., & Neumeister, A. (2013). Linking in vivo brain serotonin type 1B receptor density to phenotypic heterogeneity of posttraumatic stress symptomatology. Molecular Psychiatry, 18, 399–401.Google Scholar

Pietrzak, R. H., Huang, Y., Corsi-Travali, S., Zheng, M. Q., Lin, S. F., Henry, S. et al. (2014a). Cannabinoid type 1 receptor availability in the amygdala mediates threat processing in trauma survivors. Neuropsychopharmacology, 39, 2519–2528.Google Scholar

Pietrzak, R. H., Naganawa, M., Huang, Y., Corsi-Travali, S., Zheng, M. Q., Stein, M. B. et al. (2014b). Association of in vivo kappa-opioid receptor availability and the transdiagnostic dimensional expression of trauma-related psychopathology. JAMA Psychiatry, 71, 1262–1270.Google Scholar

Pitman, R. K., Rasmusson, A. M., Koenen, K. C., Shin, L. M., Orr, S. P., Gilbertson, M. W. et al. (2012). Biological studies of post-traumatic stress disorder. Nature Reviews. Neuroscience, 13, 769–787.Google Scholar

Pole, N. (2007). The psychophysiology of posttraumatic stress disorder: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 133, 725–746.Google Scholar

Ragen, B. J., Seidel, J., Chollak, C., Pietrzak, R. H., & Neumeister, A. (2015). Investigational drugs under development for the treatment of PTSD. Expert Opinion on Investigational Drugs, 24, 659–672.Google Scholar

Raskind, M. A., Peterson, K., Williams, T., Hoff, D. J., Hart, K., Holmes, H. et al. (2013). A trial of prazosin for combat trauma PTSD with nightmares in active-duty soldiers returned from Iraq and Afghanistan. American Journal of Psychiatry, 170, 1003–1010.Google Scholar

Ravindran, L. N., & Stein, M. B. (2009). Pharmacotherapy of PTSD: Premises, principles, and priorities. Brain Research, 1293, 24–39.Google Scholar

Sabban, E. L., Alaluf, L. G., & Serova, L. I. (2016). Potential of neuropeptide Y for preventing or treating post-traumatic stress disorder. Neuropeptides, 56, 19–24.Google Scholar

Schiller, D., Monfils, M. H., Raio, C. M., Johnson, D. C., Ledoux, J. E., & Phelps, E. A. (2010). Preventing the return of fear in humans using reconsolidation update mechanisms. Nature, 463, 49–53.Google Scholar

Seedat, S., Stein, D. J., & Carey, P. D. (2005). Post-traumatic stress disorder in women: Epidemiological and treatment issues. CNS Drugs, 19, 411–427.Google Scholar

Sergio Tde, O., Spiacci, Jr., A., & Zangrossi, Jr., H. (2014). Effects of dorsal periaqueductal gray CRF1- and CRF2-receptor stimulation in animal models of panic. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 49, 321–330.Google Scholar

Simpson, T. L., Malte, C. A., Dietel, B., Tell, D., Pocock, I., Lyons, R. et al. (2015). A pilot trial of prazosin, an alpha-1 adrenergic antagonist, for comorbid alcohol dependence and posttraumatic stress disorder. Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research, 39, 808–817.Google Scholar

Smith, R. P., Katz, C. L., Charney, D. S., & Southwick, S. M. (2007). Neurobiology of disaster exposure: Fear, anxiety, trauma, and resilience. In Ursano, R. J., Fullerton, C. S., Weisaeth, L., & Raphael, B. (Eds.), Textbook of Disaster Psychiatry (pp. 97–117). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Southwick, S. M., Morgan, III, C. A., Charney, D. S., & High, J. R. (1999). Yohimbine use in a natural setting: Effects on posttraumatic stress disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 46, 442–444.Google Scholar

Stark, E. A., Parsons, C. E., Van Hartevelt, T. J., Charquero-Ballester, M., McManners, H., Ehlers, A. et al. (2015). Post-traumatic stress influences the brain even in the absence of symptoms: A systematic, quantitative meta-analysis of neuroimaging studies. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 56, 207–221.Google Scholar

Steenen, S. A., van Wijk, A. J., van der Heijden, G. J., van Westrhenen, R., de Lange, J., & de Jongh, A. (2016). Propranolol for the treatment of anxiety disorders: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 30, 128–139.Google Scholar

Suliman, S., Seedat, S., Pingo, J., Sutherland, T., Zohar, J., & Stein, D. J. (2015). Escitalopram in the prevention of posttraumatic stress disorder: A pilot randomized controlled trial. BMC Psychiatry, 15, 24.Google Scholar

Wingenfeld, K., Whooley, M. A., Neylan, T. C., Otte, C., & Cohen, B. E. (2015). Effect of current and lifetime posttraumatic stress disorder on 24-h urinary catecholamines and cortisol: Results from the Mind Your Heart Study. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 52, 83–91.Google Scholar

Wolf, E. J., Mitchell, K. S., Koenen, K. C., & Miller, M. W. (2014). Combat exposure severity as a moderator of genetic and environmental liability to post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychological Medicine, 44, 1499–1509.Google Scholar

Wood, N. E., Rosasco, M. L., Suris, A. M., Spring, J. D., Marin, M. F., Lasko, N. B. et al. (2015). Pharmacological blockade of memory reconsolidation in posttraumatic stress disorder: Three negative psychophysiological studies. Psychiatry Research, 225, 31–39.Google Scholar

Wu, G., Feder, A., Cohen, H., Kim, J. J., Calderon, S., Charney, D. S. et al. (2013). Understanding resilience. Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience, 7, 10.Google Scholar

Yehuda, R., Golier, J. A., Bierer, L. M., Mikhno, A., Pratchett, L. C., Burton, C. L. et al. (2010). Hydrocortisone responsiveness in Gulf War veterans with PTSD: Effects on ACTH, declarative memory hippocampal [(18)F]FDG uptake on PET. Psychiatry Research, 184, 117–127.Google Scholar

Yehuda, R., Koenen, K. C., Galea, S., & Flory, J. D. (2011). The role of genes in defining a molecular biology of PTSD. Disease Markers, 30, 67–76.Google Scholar

Zohar, J., Yahalom, H., Kozlovsky, N., Cwikel-Hamzany, S., Matar, M. A., Kaplan, Z. et al. (2011). High dose hydrocortisone immediately after trauma may alter the trajectory of PTSD: Interplay between clinical and animal studies. European Neuropsychopharmacology, 21, 796–809.Google Scholar

Zovkic, I. B., & Sweatt, J. D. (2013). Epigenetic mechanisms in learned fear: Implications for PTSD. Neuropsychopharmacology, 38, 77–93.Google Scholar

Bonanno, G. A. (2004). Loss, trauma, and human resilience: Have we underestimated the human capacity to thrive after extremely aversive events? American Psychologist, 59, 20–28.Google Scholar

Bonanno, G. A. (2005). Resilience in the face of potential trauma. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 14, 135–138.Google Scholar

Bonanno, G. A., Ho, S. M., Chan, J. C., Kwong, R. S., Cheung, C. K., Wong, C. P. et al. (2008). Psychological resilience and dysfunction among hospitalized survivors of the SARS epidemic in Hong Kong: A latent class approach. Health Psychology, 27, 659–667.Google Scholar

Bowler, R. M., Harris, M., Li, J., Gocheva, V., Stellman, S. D., Wilson, K. et al. (2012). Longitudinal mental health impact among police responders to the 9/11 terrorist attack. American Journal of Industrial Medicine, 55, 297–312.Google Scholar

Cepeda, A., Valdez, A., Kaplan, C., & Hill, L. E. (2010). Patterns of substance use among hurricane Katrina evacuees in Houston, Texas. Disasters, 34, 426–446.Google Scholar

Cerda, M., Vlahov, D., Tracy, M., & Galea, S. (2008). Alcohol use trajectories among adults in an urban area after a disaster: Evidence from a population‐based cohort study. Addiction, 103, 1296–1307.Google Scholar

Galea, S., Nandi, A., & Vlahov, D. (2005). The epidemiology of post-traumatic stress disorder after disasters. Epidemiologic Reviews, 27, 78–91.Google Scholar

La Greca, A. M., Lai, B. S., Llabre, M. M., Silverman, W. K., Vernberg, E. M., & Prinstein, M. J. (2013). Children’s postdisaster trajectories of PTS symptoms: Predicting chronic distress. Child Youth Care Forum, 42, 351–369.Google Scholar

Lai, B. S., Tiwari, A., Beaulieu, B. A., Self-Brown, S., & Kelley, M. L. (2015). Hurricane Katrina: Maternal depression trajectories and child outcomes. Current Psychology, 34, 515–523.Google Scholar

Lowe, S. R., Joshi, S., Pietrzak, R. H., Galea, S., & Cerdá, M. (2015). Mental health and general wellness in the aftermath of Hurricane Ike. Social Science & Medicine, 124, 162–170.Google Scholar

Lowe, S. R., & Rhodes, J. E. (2013). Trajectories of psychological distress among low‐income, female survivors of Hurricane Katrina. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 83, 398–412.Google Scholar

Meewisse, M. L., Olff, M., Kleber, R., Kitchiner, N. J., & Gersons, B. P. (2011). The course of mental health disorders after a disaster: Predictors and comorbidity. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 24, 405–413.Google Scholar

Nandi, A., Tracy, M., Beard, J. R., Vlahov, D., & Galea, S. (2009). Patterns and predictors of trajectories of depression after an urban disaster. Annals of Epidemiology, 19, 761–770.Google Scholar

Neria, Y., Nandi, A., & Galea, S. (2008). Post-traumatic stress disorder following disasters: A systematic review. Psychological Medicine, 38, 467–480.Google Scholar

Norris, F. H., Tracy, M., & Galea, S. (2009). Looking for resilience: Understanding the longitudinal trajectories of responses to stress. Social Science and Medicine, 68, 2190–2198.Google Scholar

Pietrzak, R. H., Feder, A., Singh, R., Schechter, C. B., Bromet, E. J., Katz, C. L. et al. (2014). Trajectories of PTSD risk and resilience in World Trade Center responders: An 8-year prospective cohort study. Psychological Medicine, 44, 205–219.Google Scholar

Pietrzak, R. H., Tracy, M., Galea, S., Kilpatrick, D. G., Ruggiero, K. J., Hamblen, J. L. et al. (2012). Resilience in the face of disaster: Prevalence and longitudinal course of mental disorders following hurricane Ike. PLoS One, 7, e38964.Google Scholar

Pietrzak, R. H., Van Ness, P. H., Fried, T. R., Galea, S., & Norris, F. H. (2013). Trajectories of posttraumatic stress symptomatology in older persons affected by a large-magnitude disaster. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 47, 520–526.Google Scholar

Self-Brown, S., Lai, B. S., Harbin, S., & Kelley, M. L. (2014). Maternal posttraumatic stress disorder symptom trajectories following Hurricane Katrina: An initial examination of the impact of maternal trajectories on the well-being of disaster-exposed youth. International Journal of Public Health, 59, 957–965.Google Scholar

Self-Brown, S., Lai, B. S., Thompson, J. E., McGill, T., & Kelley, M. L. (2013). Posttraumatic stress disorder symptom trajectories in Hurricane Katrina affected youth. Journal of Affective Disorders, 147, 198–204.Google Scholar

Smid, G. E., van der Velden, P. G., Gersons, B. P. R., & Kleber, R. J. (2012). Late-onset posttraumatic stress disorder following a disaster: A longitudinal study. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 4, 312–322.Google Scholar

Tang, C. S. (2007). Trajectory of traumatic stress symptoms in the aftermath of extreme natural disaster: A study of adult Thai survivors of the 2004 Southeast Asian earthquake and tsunami. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 195, 54–59.Google Scholar

Ularntinon, S., Piyasil, V., Ketumarn, P., Sitdhiraksa, N., Pityaratstian, N., Lerthattasilp, T. et al. (2008). Assessment of psychopathological consequences in children at 3 years after tsunami disaster. Journal of the Medical Association of Thailand, 91, S69–S75.Google Scholar

Van Loey, N. E., van de Schoot, R., & Faber, A. W. (2012). Posttraumatic stress symptoms after exposure to two fire disasters: Comparative study. PLoS One, 7, e41532.Google Scholar

Vlahov, D., Galea, S., Ahern, J., Resnick, H., & Kilpatrick, D. (2004). Sustained increased consumption of cigarettes, alcohol, and marijuana among Manhattan residents after September 11, 2001. American Journal of Public Health, 94, 253–254.Google Scholar

Wadsworth, M. E., Santiago, C. D., & Einhorn, L. (2009). Coping with displacement from Hurricane Katrina: Predictors of one-year post-traumatic stress and depression symptom trajectories. Anxiety, Stress, and Coping, 22, 413–432.Google Scholar

Weems, C. F., & Graham, R. A. (2014). Resilience and trajectories of posttraumatic stress among youth exposed to disaster. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology, 24, 2–8.Google Scholar

Ye, Y., Fan, F., Li, L., & Han, Q. (2014). Trajectory and predictors of depressive symptoms among adolescent survivors following the Wenchuan earthquake in China: A cohort study. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 49, 943–952.Google Scholar