Hostname: page-component-8448b6f56d-cfpbc Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-24T10:54:45.770Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The History and Science of Gastropods in Archaeology

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 January 2017

Peter T. Bobrowsky
Peter T. Bobrowsky*
Affiliation:
Department of Geology, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada T6G 2E3
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

This study examines and defines the potential information offered to archaeology by the study of gastropod remains. A historical review of past accomplishments in archaeomalacology provides the foundation from which zooarchaeologists can begin to recognize the primary concerns for future research in the discipline. The past, present and future approaches to archaeomalacology are discussed under a taphonomic framework. Under the guise of biostratonomy, gastropod presence in archaeological contexts is explained according to four major pathways of shell introduction. Allied to this aspect of taphonomy is diagenesis, an understanding of which assists archaeologists in recognizing the role of gastropods in cultural versus natural environmental settings. This study concludes with a critique of present trends in archaeomalacological method and theory.

Type
Research Article
Information
American Antiquity , Volume 49 , Issue 1 , January 1984 , pp. 77 - 93
Copyright
Copyright © The Society for American Archaeology 1984

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

References Cited

Adovasio, J. M., Gunn, J. D., Donahue, J., Stuckenrath, R., Guilday, J., and Lord, K. 1978 Meadowcraft Rockshelter. In Early Man in America, edited by Bryan, A. L., pp. 140-180. Archaeological Researches International, Edmonton.Google Scholar
Aho, J. 1966 Ecological Basis of the Distribution of the Littoral Freshwater Molluscs in the Vicinity of Tampere, South Finland. Annales Zoologica Fennica 3 : 287–322.Google Scholar
Alexander, H. L. 1963 The Levi Site : a Paleo-Indian Campsite in Central Texas. American Antiquity 28 : 510–528.Google Scholar
Alfred, L. C. 1937 Literature on Wisconsin Shellheaps and Artifacts. Wisconsin Archaeologist 17 : 20–21.Google Scholar
Allen, D., and Cheatum, G. P. 1961 Ecological Implications of Freshwater and Land Gastropods in Texas Archaeological Sites. Texas Archaeological Society Bulletin 31 : 291–316.Google Scholar
Atkins, C. G. 1966 Factors Affecting the Structure and Distribution of Terrestrial Pulmonata. Proceedings of the Iowa Academy of Science 73 : 408–416.Google Scholar
Aveleyra, L., de Anda, A., and Maldonado-Koerdell, M. 1953 Association of Artifacts with Mammoth in the Valley of Mexico. American Antiquity 18 : 332–340.Google Scholar
Baerreis, D. A. 1969 A Preliminary Analysis of Gastropods from the Mill Creek Sites. Iowa Archaeological Society Journal 16 : 333–343.Google Scholar
Baerreis, D. A. 1971 Environmental Reconstruction Through Molluscan Remains : A Preliminary Report on the A. C. Banks Site. In Prehistoric Investigations, edited by McKusick, M., pp. 95-108. Report 3, Office of State Archaeologist, Iowa.Google Scholar
Baerreis, D. A. 1973 Gastropods and Archaeology. In Variation in Anthropology, Essays in Honor of John C. McGregor, edited by Lathrap, Donald W. and Jody, Douglas, pp. 43-53. Illinois Archaeological Survey, Urbana, Illinois.Google Scholar
Baerreis, D. A. 1974 Molluscan Remains from 13CK405. Iowa Archaeological Society Journal 21 : 131–143.Google Scholar
Baerreis, D. A. 1980 Habitat and Climatic Interpretation from Terrestrial Gastropods at the Cherokee Site. In The Cherokee Excavations : Mid-Holocene Ecology and Human Adaptation in Northwestern Iowa, edited by Anderson, D. C. and Semken, H. A., pp. 101-122. Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
Baker, F. C. 1923 The Use of Molluscan Shells by the Cahokia Mound Builders. Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions 16 : 328–334.Google Scholar
Baker, F. C. 1930 The Use of Animal Life by the Mound-building Indians of Illinois. Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions 22 : 41–64.Google Scholar
Baker, F. C. 1932 Molluscan Shells from the Etowah Mounds. In Exploration of the Etowah Site in Georgia, edited by Moorehead, W. K., pp. 145-149. Phillips Academy, Andover.Google Scholar
Baker, F. C. 1936 Remains of Animal Life from the Kingston Kitchen Midden near Peoria, Illinois. Illinois Academy of Science Transactions 29 : 243–246.Google Scholar
Baker, F. C. 1942a A New Gyraulus from the Pleistocene of California and a New Parapholyx from a Supposed Pliocene Deposit in Oregon. The Nautilus 55 : 130–132.Google Scholar
Baker, F. C. 1942b Mollusca Contained in the Test Pits. In Archaeological Researches in the Northern Great Basin, edited by Cressman, L. S., pp. 117-1191 Carnegie Institution of Washington. Washington, D. C.Google Scholar
Baker, H. B. 1958 Land Snail Dispersal. The Nautilus 71 : 141–148.Google Scholar
Barbour, E. H., and Schultz, C. B. 1936 Palaeontologic and Geologic Consideration of Early Man in Nebraska. Nebraska State Museum Bulletin 45(1) : 431–449.Google Scholar
Biggs, H. E. J. 1960 Mollusca from Prehistoric Jericho. Journal of Conchology 24(11) : 379—387.Google Scholar
Black, G. A. 1933 The Archaeology of Greene County. Indiana History Bulletin 10(5) : 183–346.Google Scholar
Bobrowsky, P. T. 1980 Method and Theory in Archaeomalacology. Paper presented at the 37th Annual Meeting of the Southeastern Archaeological Conference, New Orleans.Google Scholar
Bobrowsky, P. T. 1982a Appendix III. Gastropods from Hb Rf-62. In An Inventory and Assessment of Heritage Resources at the Peace River— Site C Damsite, by Alexander, D., pp. 201-211. On file with British Columbia Power and Hydro Authority, Vancouver.Google Scholar
Bobrowsky, P. T. 1982b Cultural and Environmental Implications of Subfossil Gastropod Remains from York Factory, Manitoba, Canada : A First Approximation. Manitoba Archaeological Quarterly 6 : 41–47.Google Scholar
Bobrowsky, P. T. 1982c The Quantitative and Qualitative Significance of Fossil and Subfossil Gastropod Remains in Archaeology. Unpublished Master's thesis, Department of Archaeology, Simon Fraser University.Google Scholar
Bobrowsky, P. T., and Gatus, T. W. 1984 Archaeomalacological Significance of the Hall Shelter, Perry County, Kentucky, U. S. A. North American Archaeologist, in press.Google Scholar
Boekelman, H. J. 1935 Ethno-and Archaeo-conchological Notes on Four Middle American Shells. Maya Research 2 : 257–277.Google Scholar
Boekelman, H. J. 1937 Archaeo-and Ethno-conchology, the Study of Man's Use of Shells. Wisconsin Archaeologist 17(1) : 13—19.Google Scholar
Boucot, A. J. 1953 Life and Death Assemblages Among Fossils. American Journal of Science 251 : 25–40.Google Scholar
Boucot, A. J., Brace, W., and DeMar, R. 1958 Distribution of Brachiopod and Pelecypod Shells by Currents. Journal of Sedimentary Petrology 28 : 321–332.Google Scholar
Brain, C. K. 1981 The Hunters or the Hunted? An Introduction to African Cave Taphonomy. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.Google Scholar
Brenchley, P. J., and Newall, G. 1970 Flume Experiments on the Orientation and Transport of Models and Shell Valves. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 7 : 185–220.Google Scholar
Brinton, D. G. 1859 Notes on the Floridan Peninsula, its Literary History, Indian Tribes and Antiquities. Joseph Sabin, Philadelphia.Google Scholar
Brinton, D. G. 1866 Artificial Shell Deposits of the United States. Smithsonian Annual Reports for 7566 : 356-358. Washington, D. C.Google Scholar
Brose, D. S. 1972 The Mollusc Fauna. In The Schultz Site at Green Point : A Stratified Occupation Area in the Saginaw Valley of Michigan, edited by Fitting, J. Memoirs of the Michigan Museum of Anthropology 4 : 117–130.Google Scholar
Butzer, K. W. 1975 The Ecological Approach to Archaeology : Are We Really Trying? American Antiquity 40 : 106–111.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Butzer, K. W. 1980 Context in Archaeology : An Alternative Perspective. Journal of Field Archaeology 7 : 417–422.Google Scholar
Cameron, R. A. D. 1978 Interpreting Buried Land-snail Assemblages from Archaeological Sites— Problems and Progress. In Research Problems in Zooarchaeology, edited by Brothwell, D. R., Thomas, K. D., and Clutton-Brock, J., pp. 19-23. Institute of Archaeology, London.Google Scholar
Campbell, E. W., and Campbell, W. H. 1937 The Lake Mohave Site. Southwestern Museum Papers 11 : 9–44.Google Scholar
Chace, P. G. 1969 Identified Shellfish from the Bonita Site. Pacific Coast Archaeological Society Quarterly 5(4) : 16.Google Scholar
Charles, F. N. 1973 Analysis of Molluscan Remains from the Higgs and Doughty sites. Tennessee Archaeological Society Miscellaneous Paper 12 : 149-161. Knoxville.Google Scholar
Clark, G. R. 1968 Mollusk Shell : Daily Growth Lines. Science 161 : 800–802.Google Scholar
Clark, J. W. 1973 The Problem of the Land Snail Genus Rabdotus in Texas Archaeological Sites. The Nautilus 87 : 24.Google Scholar
Clarke, A. H. Jr. 1963 Supplementary Notes on Pre-Columbian Littorina littorea in Nova Scotia. The Nautilus 77 : 8–11.Google Scholar
Clarke, A. H. Jr. 1981 The Freshwater Molluscs of Canada. National Museum of Natural Sciences, Ottawa.Google Scholar
Clarke, W. T. Jr. 1938 The Occurrence of Flints and Extinct Animals in Pluvial Deposits Near Clovis, New Mexico. Part VIII— Pleistocene Mollusks from the Clovis Gravel Pit and Vicinity. Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia 90 : 119–121.Google Scholar
Clench, W. J. 1926 Some Notes and a List of Shells of Rio, Kentucky. The Nautilus 40 : 7-12, 65-67.Google Scholar
Clench, W. J. 1974 Mollusca from Russel Cave. In Investigations in Russel Cave, edited by Griffin, J. W., pp. 86-90. Publications in Archaeology, National Park Service, U. S. Department of the Interior.Google Scholar
Craig, G. Y., and Hallam, A. 1963 Size-frequency and Growth-ring Analyses of Mytilus edulis and Cardium edule, and Their Paleoecological Significance. Palaeontology 6 : 731–750.Google Scholar
Craig, G. Y., and Oertel, G. 1966 Deterministic Models of Living and Fossil Populations of Animals. Quarterly Journal Geological Society of London 122 : 315–355.Google Scholar
Croizat, L. 1978 Deduction, Induction and Biogeography. Systematic Zoology 27 : 209–213.Google Scholar
Crook, W. W. Jr., and Harris, R. K. 1958 A Pleistocene Campsite Near Lewisville, Texas. American Antiquity 23 : 233–246.Google Scholar
Curtis, F. 1966 Molluscan Species from Early Southern California Archaeological Sites. Southern California Academy of Science Bulletin 65 : 107–127.Google Scholar
Dimbleby, G. W., and Evans, J. G. 1974 Pollen and Land-snail Analysis of Calcareous Soils. Journal of Archaeological Science 1 : 117–133.Google Scholar
Drake, R. J. 1951 Humboltiana taylori, New Species from Northern Coahuila. Sociedad Malacologica, Carlos de la Torre Revista 8(2) : 93–96.Google Scholar
Drake, R. J. 1959 Nonmarine Molluscan Remains from Recent Sediments in Matty Canyon, Pima County, Arizona. Southern California Academy of Science Bulletin 58 : 146-154. Los Angeles.Google Scholar
Drake, R. J. 1960 Nonmarine Molluscan Remains from an Archaeological Site at La Playa, Northern Sonora, Mexico. Southern California Academy of Science Bulletin 59 : 133-137. Los Angeles.Google Scholar
Drake, R. J. 1961 Nonmarine Molluscs from the La Playa Site, Sonora, Mexico 2. Southern California Academy of Science Bulletin 60 : 127-129. Los Angeles.Google Scholar
Drake, R. J. 1962 Nonmarine Molluscs from Recent Sediments near Vernon, Apache County, Arizona. Southern California Academy of Science Bulletin 61 : 25-28. Los Angeles.Google Scholar
Draper, B. C. 1969 Micro-shells from the North Bay #1 Site. Pacific Archaeological Society Quarterly 5(2) : 57-59.Google Scholar
Eaton, G. I. 1898 The Prehistoric Fauna of Block Island, as Indicated by its Ancient Shell-heaps. American Journal of Science 6 : 137–159.Google Scholar
Eisley, L. C. 1937 Index Mollusca and Their Bearing on Certain Problems of Prehistory : A Critique. In Publications of the Philadelphia Anthropological Society, Twenty-fifth Anniversary Studies, Volume 1, edited by Davidson, D. S., pp. 77-93. University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia.Google Scholar
Evans, J. G. 1972 Land Snails in Archaeology. Seminar Press, London. Google Scholar
Evans, J. L. 1978 Paleo-Indian to Early Archaic Transition at the Shawnee-Minisink Site. Ph. D. dissertation, The American University, University Microfilms, Ann Arbor.Google Scholar
Fagerstrom, J. A. 1964 Fossil Communities in Paleoecology : Their Recognition and Significance. Geological Society of America Bulletin 75 : 1197–1216.Google Scholar
Forrester, R. E. 1964 The Ham Creek Site. Tarrant County Archaeological Society, Fort Worth.Google Scholar
Fowler, M. L., and Parmalee, P. W. 1959 Ecological Interpretation of Data on Archaeological Sites : The Modoc Rock Shelter. Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions 52(3-4) : 109-119.Google Scholar
Gebhard, P. H. 1949 An Archaeological Survey of the Blowouts of Yuma County, Colorado. American Antiquity 15 : 132–143.Google Scholar
Gerow, B. A., and Force, R. W. 1968 An Analysis of the University Village Complex. Stanford University Press, Stanford.Google Scholar
Gifford, D. P. 1981 Taphonomy and Paleoecology : A Critical Review of Archaeology's Sister Disciplines. In Advances in Archaeological Method and Theory, vol. 4, edited by Schiffer, M. B., pp. 365-438. Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
Gould, S. J. 1971 The Paleontology and Evolution of Cerion II : Age and Fauna of Indian Shell Middens on Curacao and Aruba. Breviora 372 : 1–26.Google Scholar
Greenwood, R. S. 1961 Quantitative Analysis of Shells from a Site in Goleta, California. American Antiquity 26 : 416–420.Google Scholar
Habgood, T. E. 1968 The Paleoecology of Land and Fresh-water Mollusks and Archaeology. Ms. on file, Department of Anthropology, University of Alberta. Google Scholar
Hallam, A. 1967 The Interpretation of Size-frequency Distributions in Molluscan Death Assemblages. Palaeontology 10 : 25–42.Google Scholar
Harris, S. A. 1961 On the Land Snails of Iraq and Their Potential Use in Determining Past Climatic Conditions. Sumer 17 : 107–113.Google Scholar
Haury, E. W. 1937 The Snaketown Canal. In Excavations at Snaketown : Material Culture, edited by Gladwin, H. S., Haury, E. W., Sayles, E. S., and Gladwin, N., pp. 50-58. Medallion Papers, Gila Pueblo.Google Scholar
Hawkins, G. S. 1965 Stonehenge Decoded. Delta, New York.Google Scholar
Heilprin, A. 1887 The Geographical and Geological Distribution of Animals. D. Appleton, New York.Google Scholar
Heizer, R. F., and Napton, L. K. 1969 Biological and Cultural Evidence from Prehistoric Human Coprolites. Science 165 : 563–568.Google Scholar
Henry, D. O. 1978 Big Hawk Shelter in Northeastern Oklahoma : Environmental, Economic, and Cultural Changes. Journal of Field Archaeology 5 : 269–287.Google Scholar
Hester, T. R. 1971 Archaeological Investigations at the La Jita Site, Uvalde County, Texas. Texas Archaeological Society Bulletin 42 : 51–148.Google Scholar
Hester, T. R. 1975 The Natural Introduction of Mollusca in Archaeological Sites : An Example from Southern Texas. Journal of Field Archaeology 2 : 273–275.Google Scholar
Hester, T. R., and Hill, T. C. Jr. 1975 Eating Land Snails in Prehistoric Southern Texas : Ethnohistoric and Experimental Data. The Nautilus 89 : 37–38.Google Scholar
Hubricht, L. 1954 The Snails from Two Indian Shellmounds Near Clarksville, Virginia. The Nautilus 67 : 90–92.Google Scholar
Huskey, V. 1935 An Archaeological Survey of the Nueces Canyon of Texas. Texas Archaeological and Paleontological Society 7 : 105–114.Google Scholar
Ingram, W. M. 1944 Notes on Winter Habits of Land Mollusks at Ithaca, New York. The Nautilus 58 : 25–27.Google Scholar
Jaehnig, M. E. W. 1971 The Study of Gastropods : Methodology. Plains Anthropologist 16 : 289–297.Google Scholar
Janzen, D. E. 1971 Excavations at the Falls of the Ohio River Region. The Filson Club History Quarterly 45 : 373–380.Google Scholar
Johnson, C. W. 1914 Helix hortensis from a Maine Shell Heap. The Nautilus 28 : 131.Google Scholar
Johnson, D. L. 1971 Pleistocene Land Snails on the Channel Islands, California : A Call for Research. The Nautilus 85 : 32–35.Google Scholar
Johnson, R. G. 1957 Experiments on the Burial of Shells. Journal of Geology 65 : 527–535.Google Scholar
Johnson, R. G. 1960 Models and Methods for Analysis of the Mode of Formation of Fossil Assemblages. Geological Society of America Bulletin 71 : 1075–1086.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kenward, H. K., Hall, A. R., and Jones, A. K. G. 1980 A Tested Set of Techniques for the Extraction of Plant and Animal Macrofossils from Waterlogged Archaeological Deposits. Science and Archaeology 22 : 3–15.Google Scholar
Kranz, P. M. 1974 Computer Simulation of Fossil Assemblage Formation Under Conditions of Anastrophic Burial. Journal of Paleontology 48 : 800–808.Google Scholar
La Barbera, M. 1977 Brachiopod Orientation to Water Movement. 1. Theory, Laboratory Behavior and Field Orientation. Paleobiology 3 : 270–287.Google Scholar
Lambert, R. J. Jr. 1960 Review of the Literature of Ethnoconchology Pertinent to Archaeology. Sterkiana 2 : 1–8.Google Scholar
La Rocque, A. 1966 Pleistocene Mollusca of Ohio. Ohio Geological Survey Bulletin 62, Part 1 : 1–112.Google Scholar
La Rocque, A. 1970 Pleistocene Mollusca of Ohio. Ohio Geological Survey Bulletin 62, Part 4 : 554–800.Google Scholar
Lasker, H. 1976 Effects of Preservation on the Measurement of Taxonomic Diversity. Paleobiology 2 : 84–93.Google Scholar
Laverack, M. S., and Dando, J. 1979 Essential Invertebrate Zoology. John Wiley and Sons, Toronto.Google Scholar
Leonard, A. B. 1974 Chronology and Molluscan Paleontology of Two Post-Woodfordian Bogs in Northeastern Illinois. Illinois State Geological Survey No. 484 : 1–28.Google Scholar
Lepsi, I. 1933 Einige biostratonomisch-malakologische Beobachtungen am Cahul-See in Sud-Bessarabien. Palaontologische Zeitschrift 15 : 312–318.Google Scholar
Lever, J. 1958 Quantitative Beach Research, I. The “Left-right-Phenomenon“ : Sorting of Lamellibranch Valves on Sandy Beaches. Basteria 22(2—3) : 21—51.Google Scholar
Lever, J., Kessler, A., van Overbeeke, A. P., and Thijssen, R. 1961 Quantitative Beach Research, II. The “Hole-effect“ : A Second Mode of Sorting of Lamellibranch Valves on Sandy Beaches. Netherlands Journal of Sea Research 1 : 339–358.Google Scholar
Lever, J., van den Bosch, M., Cook, H., van Dijk, T., Thiadens, A. J. H., Thijssen, S. J., and Thijssen, R. 1964 Quantitative Beach Research, III. An Experiment with Artificial Valves of Donax vittalus. Netherlands Journal of Sea Research 2 : 458–492.Google Scholar
Lever, J., and Thijssen, R. 1968 Sorting Phenomena During Transport of Shell Valves on Sandy Beaches Studied with the Use of Artificial Valves. Zoological Society of London Symposia 22 : 259–271.Google Scholar
Loomis, F. B., and Young, D. B. 1912 On the Shell Heaps of Maine. American Journal of Science 34 : 17–42.Google Scholar
Lubell, D., Ballais, J. L., Gautier, A., and Hassan, F. A. 1975 The Prehistoric Cultural Ecology of Capsien Escargotieres. Lybica 23 : 43–121.Google Scholar
Lundbeck, J. 1929 Die “Schalenzone” der norddeutschen Seen. Jahrbuch der Preussischen Geologischen Landesanstall zu Berlin 49 : 1127–1151.Google Scholar
Mac Namara, M. C, and Harman, W. N. 1975 Further Studies of the Mollusca of the Otsego Lake Area. The Nautilus 89 : 87–90.Google Scholar
Malde, H. E. 1960 Geological Age of the Claypool Site, Northeastern Colorado. American Antiquity 26 : 236–243.Google Scholar
Malone, C. R. 1965 Dispersal of Aquatic Gastropods via the Intestinal Tract of Water Birds. The Nautilus 78 : 135–139.Google Scholar
Matteson, M. R. 1953a Freshwater Mussel Used by Illinoian Indians of the Hopewell Culture. The Nautilus 66 : 130-138, 67 : 25–26.Google Scholar
Matteson, M. R. 1953b Land-snail Shells Found in a Kitchen Midden of Illinoian Indians of the Hopewell Culture. Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions 46 : 208–211.Google Scholar
Matteson, M. R. 1958 Analysis of an Environment as Suggested by Shells of Freshwater Mussels Discarded by Indians of Illinois. Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions 51 : 8–13.Google Scholar
Matteson, M. R. 1959a An Analysis of the Shells of Freshwater Mussels Gathered by Indians in Southwestern Illinois. Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions 52 : 52–58.Google Scholar
Matteson, M. R. 1959b Snails in Archaeological Sites. American Anthropologist 61 : 1094–1096.Google Scholar
Matteson, M. R. 1960 Reconstruction of Prehistoric Environments Through the Analysis of Molluscan Collections from Shell Middens. American Antiquity 26 : 117–120.Google Scholar
Matthew, G. F. 1884 Discoveries at a Village of the Stone Age at Bocabec, N. B. Natural History Society of St. John, New Brunswick, Bulletin 1(3) : 6-29.Google Scholar
Mayer-Oakes, W. J. 1955 Excavations at the Globe Hill Shell Heap (46Hk34-l) Hancock County, West Va. West Virginia Archaeological Society Publication Series 3 : 1–32.Google Scholar
Mead, J. I. 1978 Freshwater Molluscs from the Hot Springs Mammoth Site, South Dakota. Guidebook and Roadlogs for the Rocky Mountain-Plains Field Conference, Hot Springs, South Dakota, July 29-30, pp. 32-36.Google Scholar
Meighan, C. W. 1959 The Little Harbor Site, Catalina Island : An Example of Ecological Interpretation in Archaeology. American Antiquity 24 : 383–405.Google Scholar
Menard, H. W., and Boucot, A. J. 1951 Experiments on the Movement of Shells by Water. American Journal of Science 249 : 131–151.Google Scholar
Moore, J. M., and Wein, R. W. 1977 Viable Seed Populations by Soil Depth and Potential Site Recolonization After Disturbance. Canadian Journal of Botany 55 : 2408–2412.Google Scholar
Morrison, J. P. E. 1942 Preliminary Report on Mollusks Found in the Shell Mounds of the Pickwick Landing Basin in the Tennessee River Valley. In An Archaeological Survey of Pickwick Basin in the Adjacent Portions of the States of Alabama, Mississippi and Tennessee, by Webb, W. S. and Dejarnette, D. L., pp. 337-392. Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 129. Washington, D. C. Google Scholar
Morse, E. S. 1867 Evidences of Great Antiquity in the Shell Heaps at Goose Island. Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History 11 : 301–302.Google Scholar
Morse, E. S. 1925 Shell-mounds and Changes in the Shells Composing Them. Scientific Monthly 21 : 429–440.Google Scholar
Murphy, J. L. 1971 Molluscan Remains from Four Archaeological Sites in Northeastern Ohio. Sterkiana 43 : 21–25.Google Scholar
Murphy, J. L. 1973 Cerion from an Archaeological Site in Northern Ohio. The Nautilus 87 : 28.Google Scholar
Nagle, J. S. 1967 Wave and Current Orientation of Shells. Journal of Sedimentary Petrology 37 : 1124–1138.Google Scholar
Nave, F. R. 1969 Pleistocene Mollusca of Southwestern Ohio. Sterkiana 34 : 1–48.Google Scholar
Nicol, D. 1977 The Number of Living Animal Species Likely to be Fossilized. Florida Scientist 40 : 135-139.Google Scholar
Pace, G. L., Szuch, E. J., and Dapson, R. W. 1979 Depth Distribution of Three Gastropods in New Mission Bay, Lake Michigan. The Nautilus 93 : 31–36.Google Scholar
Parmalee, P. W. 1956 A Comparison of Past and Present Populations of Fresh-water Mussels in Southern Illinois. Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions 49 : 184–192.Google Scholar
Parmalee, P. W. 1958 Marine Shells of Illinois Indian Sites. The Nautilus 71 : 132–139.Google Scholar
Parmalee, P. W. 1960 Mussels from the Angel Site, Indiana. The Nautilus 74 : 70–75.Google Scholar
Parmalee, P. W. 1968 Cave and Archaeological Faunal Deposits as Indicators of Post-Pleistocene Animal Populations and Distribution in Illinois. In The Quaternary of Illinois, edited by Bergstrom, R. E., pp. 104-113. Illinois State Geological Survey, Urbana.Google Scholar
Parmalee, P. W. 1969 Animal Remains from the Archaic Riverton, Swan Island and Robeson Hills Sites, Illinois. In The Riverton Culture, by Winters, H. D.. Illinois State Museum, Report of Investigations 13 : 139-144. Springfield.Google Scholar
Peterson, C. H. 1976 Relative Abundances of Living and Dead Molluscs in Two Californian Lagoons. Lethaia 9 : 134–148.Google Scholar
Raup, D. M. 1976 Species Diversity in the Phanerozoic : A Tabulation. Paleobiology 4 : 279–288.Google Scholar
Reed, C. A. 1962 Snails on a Persian Hillside. Postilla 66 : 1–20.Google Scholar
Rees, W. J. 1965 The Aerial Dispersal of Molluscs. Proceedings of the Malacological Society of London 36 : 269–282.Google Scholar
Rigby, J. K. 1958 Frequency Curves and Death Relationships Among Fossils. Journal of Paleontology 32 : 1007–1009.Google Scholar
Riggle, R. S. 1976 Quantitative Examination of Gastropod and Soil Relationships in an Oak-hickory Forest in the Lower Illinois Valley Region. Sterkiana 62 : 1–17.Google Scholar
Ritchie, W. A. 1932 The Lamoka Lake Site : A Type Section of the Archaic Algonkian Period in New York. New York State Archaeological Association Researches and Transactions 7 : 79-134, Rochester.Google Scholar
Roberts, F. H. H. Jr. 1942 Archaeological and Geological Investigations in the San Jon District, Eastern New Mexico. Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections 103(4) : 1-30. Washington, D. C. Google Scholar
Robison, N. D. 1978 A Zooarchaeological Analysis of the Mississippian Faunal Remains from the Normandy River. In Fifth Report of the Normandy Archaeological Project, edited by Faulkner, C. H. and McCullough, M. C. R., pp. 498-595. Department of Anthropology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville.Google Scholar
Roscoe, E. J. 1963 Stratigraphic Summary of Quaternary Bonneville Basin Mollusca. Sterkiana 9 : 1–23.Google Scholar
Schoenbeck, E. 1939 Discovery of a Buried Aboriginal Shellheap in the Illinois River Valley. Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions 32 : 61–62.Google Scholar
Schultz, C. B., and Eisley, L. 1935 Paleontological Evidence for the Antiquity of the Scottsbluff Bison Quarry and Its Associated Artifacts. American Anthropologist 37 : 306–319.Google Scholar
Schwarzacher, W. 1963 Orientation of Crinoids by Current Action. Journal of Sedimentary Petrology 33 : 580–586.Google Scholar
Shimek, B. 1913 The Significance of Pleistocene Mollusks. Science 37 : 466–467.Google Scholar
Simon, L. P., and Reed, C. A. 1945 Miocene Fossil Found in Oregon Kitchen Midden. American Antiquity 11 : 118–119.Google Scholar
Skinner, S. A. 1971 Prehistoric Settlement of the DeCordova Bend Reservoir, Central Texas. Texas Archaeological Society Bulletin 42 : 149–269.Google Scholar
Sparks, B. W. 1964 The Distribution of Non-marine Mollusca in the Last Interglacial in South-east England. Proceedings of the Malacological Society of London 36 : 7–25.Google Scholar
Sparks, B. W., West, R. G., Williams, R. B. G., and Ransom, M. 1969 Hoxnian Interglacial Deposits Near Hatfield, Herts. Proceedings of the Geologists’ Association 80 : 243–267.Google Scholar
Stansbery, D. H. 1965 The Molluscan Fauna. In The Mac Graw Site, A Study in Hopewellian Dynamics, edited by Prufer, O. H., pp. 119-124. Cleveland Museum of Natural History, Cleveland.Google Scholar
Stanton, R. J. Jr., and Dodd, J. R. 1976 The Application of Trophic Structure of Fossil Communities in Paleoenvironmental Reconstruction. Lethaia 9 : 327–342.Google Scholar
Tompkins, R. C, and Di Maria, L. 1979 Excavations at Muddy Brook Rockshelter, 1975-1976, A Progress Report. New York State Archaeological Association Bulletin 75 : 58–64.Google Scholar
Tuthill, S. J. 1963 Molluscan Fossils from Upper Glacial Lake Agassiz Sediments in Red Lake County, Minnesota. North Dakota Geological Survey Miscellaneous Series 20 : 96–101.Google Scholar
Tuthill, S. J., and Johnson, R. L. 1969 Nonmarine Mollusks of the Katalla Region, Alaska. The Nautilus 82 : 44–52.Google Scholar
Vagvolgyi, J. 1975 Body Size, Aerial Dispersal, and Origin of the Pacific Land Snail Fauna. Systematic Zoology 24 : 465–488.Google Scholar
Vagvolgyi, J. 1978 Why Are So Many Minute Land Snails on the Pacific Islands : A Response to Leon Croizat. Systematic zoology 27 : 213.Google Scholar
van der Schalie, H., and Parmalee, P. W. 1960 Animal Remains from the Etowah Site, Mound C, Barrow County, Georgia. Florida Anthropologist 13(2-3) : 37-54.Google Scholar
Vanuxem, L. 1840-1842 On the Ancient Oyster Shell Deposits Observed Near the Atlantic Coast of the United States. Proceedings of the Association of American Geologists and Naturalists 1840-1842 : 21–23.Google Scholar
Wallace, A. R. 1876 The Geographical Distribution of Animals. 2 vols. Reprinted in 1962 by Hafner, New York.Google Scholar
Webb, W. S., and Dejarnette, D. L. 1948 The Flint River Site, Ma 48. Geological Survey of Alabama, Museum Paper 23. University, Alabama.Google Scholar
Webster, W. J. 1970 A New Concept for the Busycon Shell Receptacle. Florida Anthropologist 23 : 1–7.Google Scholar
Wendorf, F. 1970 The Lubbock Subpluvial. In Pleistocene and Recent Environments on the Central Great Plains, edited by Dort, W. Jr., and Jones, J. K. Jr., pp. 23-35. University of Kansas Press, Lawrence.Google Scholar
Wendorf, F., and Krieger, A. G. 1959 New Light on the Midland Discovery. American Antiquity 25 : 66–78.Google Scholar
Willey, L. M., and Ruskin, P. T. 1968 Mollusc Analysis and Distribution at Sheep Rock Shelter. Department of Anthropology, Pennsylvania State University, Occasional Papers in Anthropology 5 : 141-164. University Park.Google Scholar
Wilson, M., and La Rocque, A. 1973 Fossil Gastropods from a Paleo-Indian Archaeological Site in Calgary, Alberta, Canada : Local and Regional Significance. Sterkiana 49 : 1–10.Google Scholar
Wintemberg, W. J. 1919 Archaeology as an Aid to Zoology. Canadian Field-Naturalist 33(4) : 63–72.Google Scholar
Wyman, J. 1867 A General Account of the Animals Discovered in the Shell Heaps of New England. Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History 9 : 337-338, Boston, Mass.Google Scholar
Wyman, J. 1868a An Account of Some Kjoekkenmoeddings, or Shell-heaps, in Maine and Massachusetts. American Naturalist 1 : 561–584.Google Scholar
Wyman, J. 1868b On the Fresh-water Shell-heaps of the St. John River, East Florida. American Naturalist 2 : 393-403, 449-463.Google Scholar
Wyman, J. 1875 Freshwater Shell Mounds of the St. John's River, Florida. Peabody Academy of Science Memoir 4 : 1-94. Salem.Google Scholar
Yen, T. C. 1947 Distribution of Fossil Fresh-water Mollusks. Geological Society of America Bulletin 58 : 293–298.Google Scholar
Zeissler, H. 1971 On Fagotia acicularis (Ferussac) from the Quaternary Deposits in the Valleys of Helme and Unstrut. Journal of Conchology 27 : 257-265.Google Scholar