Speech Duties

¹ Danielle Keats Citron, Hate Crimes in Cyberspace 56–72 (2014).

² John Ruggie (Special Representative of the Secretary-General on the Issue of Human Rights and Transnational Corporations and Other Business Enterprises), Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights: Implementing the United Nations “Protect, Respect and Remedy” Framework, UN Doc. A/HRC/17/31, Principle 13 (Mar. 21, 2011) [hereinafter Guiding Principles].

³ John H. Knox, Horizontal Human Rights Law, 102 AJIL 1, 1 (2008).

⁴ See generally Douglas Hodgson, Individual Duty Within a Human Rights Discourse (2003).

⁵ Knox, supra note 3, at 9–10. See generally Erica-Irene A. Daes, Freedom of the Individual under Law: A Study on the Individual's Duties to the Community and the Limitations on Human Rights and Freedoms under Article 29 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1990).

⁶ See, e.g., Makau Wa Mutua, The Banjul Charter and the African Cultural Fingerprint: An Evaluation of the Language of Duties, 35 Va. J. Int'l L. 339, 359–64 (1995).

⁷ Jordan J. Paust, The Other Side of Right: Private Duties Under Human Rights Law, 5 Harv. Hum. Rts. J. 51, 53 (1992).

⁸ See, e.g., Eric R. Boot, Human Duties and the Limits of Human Rights Discourse 4–5, 69 (2017); Hodgson, supra note 4, at 211–18.

⁹ Fernando Berdion Del Valle & Kathryn Sikkink, (Re)discovering Duties: Individual Responsibilities in the Age of Rights, 26 Minn. J. Int'l L. 189, 244 (2017).

¹⁰ See, e.g., Aaron Xavier Fellmeth, Paradigms of International Human Rights Law 29, 40–41 (2016); Daes, supra note 5, at 52, para. 221; Boot, supra note 8, at 95; Hodgson, supra note 4, at 98; Del Valle & Sikkink, supra note 9, at 197; Ben Saul, In the Shadow of Human Rights: Human Duties, Obligations, and Responsibilities, 32 Colum. Hum. Rts. L. Rev. 565 (2001).

¹¹ Fellmeth, supra note 10, at 29.

¹² Knox, supra note 3, at 10. An emphasis on duties might also be seen as a methodological approach that allows us to clarify the nature of rights. Boot, supra note 8, at 67.

¹³ Marc J. Bossuyt, Guide to the “Travaux Préparatoires” of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights 386 (1987).

¹⁴ Manfred Nowak, U.N. Covenant on Civil and Political Rights: CCPR Commentary 350 (1993); see generally Molly K. Land, Toward an International Law of the Internet, 54 Harv. Int'l L.J. 393, 448–49 (2013).

¹⁵ Nowak, supra note 14, at 349.

¹⁶ See Zeynep Tufecki, Twitter and Tear Gas: The Power and Fragility of Networked Protest (2017).

¹⁷ Adam Liptak, How Conservatives Weaponized the First Amendment, N.Y. Times (June 30, 2018).

¹⁸ See generally Citron, supra note 1.

¹⁹ See Richard Ashby Wilson, Incitement on Trial: Prosecuting International Speech Crimes (2017).

²⁰ U.N. Human Rights Committee, Hertzberg and Others v. Fin., Comm. No. 61/1979, at 124, U.N. Doc. CCPR/C/15/D/61/1979 (1982).

²¹ Cf. Boot, supra note 8, at 162–67 (arguing that states should take steps to cultivate civic virtue, including through education).

²² Guiding Principles, supra note 2, Principles 11, 13(b).

²³ See Human Rights Watch, Germany: Flawed Social Media Law—NetzDG Is Wrong Response to Online Abuse (Feb. 14, 2018).

²⁴ Amanda Taub & Max Fisher, Facebook Fueled Anti-Refugee Attacks in Germany, New Research Suggests, N.Y. Times (Aug. 21, 2018).

²⁵ Noam Lapidot-Lefler & Azy Barak, Effects of Anonymity, Invisibility, and Lack of Eye-Contact on Toxic Online Disinhibition, 28 Computers Hum. Behav. 434, 434–36 (2012); see also Arthur D. Santana, Virtuous or Vitriolic, 8 Journalism Prac. 18 (2014); John Suler, The Online Disinhibition Effect, 2 Int'l J. Applied Psychoanalytical Stud. 184 (2005).

²⁶ Citron, supra note 1, at 59.

²⁷ Id.

²⁸ Juliana Schroeder et al., The Humanizing Voice: Speech Reveals, and Text Conceals, a More Thoughtful Mind in the Midst of Disagreement, 28 Psychol. Sci. 1745, 1760–61 (2017).

²⁹ Katrin Wodzicki et al., Does the Type of Anonymity Matter? The Impact of Visualization on Information Sharing in Online Groups, 14 Cyberpsychology, Behav., & Soc. Networking 157, 157–58 (2011).

³⁰ Patricia K. Gilbert & Nada Dabbagh, How to Structure Online Discussions for Meaningful Discourse: A Case Study, 36 Brit. J. Ed. Tech. 5, 16 (2005).

³¹ Alexander Brown, What Is So Special About Online (As Compared to Offline) Hate Speech?, 18(3) Ethnicities 297, 305 (2017).