Hostname: page-component-797576ffbb-jhnrh Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2023-12-02T01:42:24.830Z Has data issue: false Feature Flags: { "corePageComponentGetUserInfoFromSharedSession": true, "coreDisableEcommerce": false, "useRatesEcommerce": true } hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The Civic Origins of Progressive Policy Change: Combating Violence against Women in Global Perspective, 1975–2005

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  30 July 2012

MALA HTUN  and
S. LAUREL WELDON
MALA HTUN*
Affiliation:
University of New Mexico
S. LAUREL WELDON*
Affiliation:
Purdue University
*
Mala Htun is Associate Professor of Political Science, University of New Mexico, 1915 Roma Street NE, Albuquerque, NM 87131 (malahtun@unm.edu).
S. Laurel Weldon is Professor of Political Science, Purdue University, 100 N. University Street, West Lafayette, IN 47907 (weldons@purdue.edu).
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Over the past four decades, violence against women (VAW) has come to be seen as a violation of human rights and an important concern for social policy. Yet government action remains uneven. Some countries have adopted comprehensive policies to combat VAW, whereas others have been slow to address the problem. Using an original dataset of social movements and VAW policies in 70 countries over four decades, we show that feminist mobilization in civil society—not intra-legislative political phenomena such as leftist parties or women in government or economic factors like national wealth—accounts for variation in policy development. In addition, we demonstrate that autonomous movements produce an enduring impact on VAW policy through the institutionalization of feminist ideas in international norms. This study brings national and global civil society into large-n explanations of social policy, arguing that analysis of civil society in general—and of social movements in particular—is critical to understanding progressive social policy change.

Type
Research Article
Information
American Political Science Review , Volume 106 , Issue 3 , August 2012 , pp. 548 - 569
Copyright
Copyright © American Political Science Association 2012

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

Abramovitz, Mimi. 1988. Regulating the Lives of Women. Boston: South End Press.Google Scholar
Alvarez, Sonia.1990. Engendering Democracy in Brazil. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Amirthalingam, Kumaralingam. 2005. “Women's Rights, International Norms, and Domestic Violence: Asian Perspectives.” Human Rights Quarterly 27 (2): 683–708.Google Scholar
Amenta, Edwin, Chris, Bonastia, and Neal, Caren. 2001. “US Social Policy in Comparative and Historical Perspective: Concepts, Images, Arguments, and Research Strategies.” Annual Review of Sociology 27: 213–34.Google Scholar
Amenta, Edwin, Neal, Caren, Elizabeth, Chiarello, and Yang, Su. 2010. “The Political Consequences of Social Movements.” Annual Review of Sociology 36: 287–307.Google Scholar
Armstrong Elizabeth, A., and Mary, Bernstein. 2008. “Culture, Power, and Institutions: A Multi-institutional Politics Approach to Social Movements.” Sociological Theory 26 (March): 74–99Google Scholar
Avdeyeva, Olga. 2007. “When Do States Comply with International Treaties? Policies on Violence against Women in Post-Communist Countries.” International Studies Quarterly 51 (4): 877–900.Google Scholar
Avdeyeva, Olga. 2009. “Enlarging the Club: When Do States Enforce Gender Equality Laws?” Comparative European Politics 7 (1): 158–77.Google Scholar
Bachrach, Peter, and Morton, S. Baratz. 1962. “The Two Faces of Power.” American Political Science Review 56 (4): 947–52.Google Scholar
Baldez, Lisa. 2004. “Elected Bodies: Gender Quotas for Female Legislative Candidates in Mexico.” Legislative Studies Quarterly 29 (2): 231–58.Google Scholar
Banaszak, Lee Ann, Karen, Beckwith, and Dieter, Rucht, eds. 2003. Women's Movements Facing the Reconfigured State. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Barrett, Jacqueline, K., ed. 1993. Encyclopedia of Women's Associations Worldwide: A Guide to over 3,400 National and Multination Nonprofit Women's and Women-related Organizations. London: Gale Research.Google Scholar
Bashevkin, Sylvia. 1998. Women on the Defensive. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Baumgartner, Frank, and Christine, Mahoney. 2005. “Social Movements, the Rise of New Issues, and the Public Agenda.” In Routing the Opposition: Social Movements, Public Policy and Democracy, eds. David, S. Meyer, Valerie, Jenness, and Helen, Ingram. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 65–86.Google Scholar
Bauer, D., and Ameringer, C.. 2010. “A Framework for Identifying Similarities among Countries to Improve Cross-national Comparisons of Health Systems.” Health Place 16 (6): 1129–35.Google Scholar
Beckwith, Karen. 2000. “Beyond Compare? Women's Movements in Comparative Perspective.” European Journal of Political Research 37: 431–68.Google Scholar
Benhabib, Seyla. 2009. “Claiming Rights across Borders: International Human Rights and Democratic Sovereignty.” American Political Science Review 103 (4): 691–704.Google Scholar
Berry, Frances Stokes, and William, D. Berry. 1999. “Innovation and Diffusion Models in Policy Research.” In Theories of the Policy Process, ed. Sabatier, P.A.. Boulder, CO: Westview, 169–200.Google Scholar
Blofield, Merike, and Haas, Liesl. 2005. “Defining a Democracy: Reforming the Laws on Women's Rights in Chile, 1990–2002.” Latin American Politics and Society 47 (3): 35–68.Google Scholar
Boushey, Graeme. 2010. Policy Diffusion Dynamics in America. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Brambor, Thomas, Clark, William, and Golder, Matt. 2006. “Understanding Interaction Models: Improving Empirical Analyses.” Political Analysis 14: 63–82.Google Scholar
Brady, David. 2003 “The Politics of Poverty: Left Political Institutions, the Welfare State and Poverty.” Social Forces 82: 557–88.Google Scholar
Brady, David,Beckfield, Jason, and Seeleib-Kaiser, Martin. 2005. “Economic Globalization and the Welfare State in Affluent Democracies, 1975–2001.” American Sociological Review 70: 921–48.Google Scholar
Brown Thompson, Karen. 2002. “Women's Rights are Human Rights.” In Restructuring World Politics: Transnational Social Movements, Networks, and Norms, eds. Khagram, S., Riker, J.V., and Sikkink, K.. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 96–122.Google Scholar
Bruni, Frank. 2011. “One Country's Big Gay Leap.” New York Times, October 8.Google Scholar
Brush, Lisa D. 2003. Gender and Governance. Walnut Creek, CA AltaMira Press.Google Scholar
Brush, Lisa D. 2011. Poverty, Battered Women, and Work in U.S. Public Policy. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Butler, Judith. 2004. Undoing Gender. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Carrillo, Roxanna, Connor, Melissa, Fried, Susana, Sandler, Joanne, Waldorf, Lee. Not a Minute More: Ending Violence Against Women. New York: UNIFEM.Google Scholar
Chalk, Rosemary, and King, Patricia, eds. 1998. Violence in Families. National Research Council and Institute of Medicine. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.Google Scholar
Chan-Tiberghien, Jennifer. 2004. “Gender-skepticism or Gender Boom: Poststructural Feminisms, Transnational Feminisms, and the World Conference against Racism.” International Feminist Journal of Politics 6 (3): 454–84.Google Scholar
Chappell, Louise. 2010. “Nested Newness and Institutional Innovation: Expanding Gender Justice in the International Criminal Court.” In Gender, Politics, and Institutions: Towards a Feminist Institutionalism, eds. Krook, M.L. and Mackay, F.. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 163–80.Google Scholar
Chasin, Alexandra. 2001. Selling Out: The Gay and Lesbian Movement Goes to Market. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave MacMillan.Google Scholar
Checkel, Jeffrey T. 1997. “International Norms and Domestic Politics: Bridging the Rationalist-Constructivist Divide.” European Journal of International Relations 3 (4): 473–95.Google Scholar
Cheibub, J.A., Gandhi, J., and Vreeland, J.R.. 2009. “Democracy and Dictatorship Revisited.” Public Choice 143 (1/2): 67–101.Google Scholar
Clark, Ann Marie, Friedman, Elisabeth J., and Hochstetler, Kathryn. “The Sovereign Limits of Global Civil Society: A Comparison of NGO Participation in UN World Conferences on the Environment, Human Rights, and Women.” World Politics 51 (1): 1–35.Google Scholar
Corrales, Javier, and Pecheny, Mario. 2010. “Six Reasons Why Argentina Legalized Gay Marriage First.” Americas Quarterly. http://americasquarterly.org/node/1753 (accessed November 4, 2010).Google Scholar
Costain, Anne N. 1998. “Women Lobby Congress.” In Social Movements and American Political Institutions, eds. Costain, Anne N. and McFarland, Andrew S.. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 171–84.Google Scholar
Costain, Anne N. 2005. “Social Movements as Mechanisms for Political Inclusion.” In The Politics of Democratic Inclusion, eds. Wolbrecht, Christina and Hero, Rodney. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 108–21.Google Scholar
Crenshaw, Kimberle. 1993. “Demarginalizing the Intersection of Race and Sex.” In Feminist Legal Theory: Foundations, vol. 1, ed. Weisberg, D. Kelly. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 383–98.Google Scholar
Crocker, Adriana M. 2005. Gender Quota Laws in Latin America: Explaining Cross-national and Sub-national Diffusion. Ph.D. diss. Northern Illinois University.Google Scholar
Crowell, Nancy A., and Burgess, Ann W., eds. 1996. “Understanding Violence against Women. Panel on Research on Violence against Women,” Commission on Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education, National Research Council. Washington DC: National Academy Press.Google Scholar
Council of Europe. 2000. Violence against Women in Europe. Doc. 866715 March 2000 Report Committee on Equal Opportunities for Women and Men. Rapporteur: Vermot-Mangold, Switzerland, Socialist Group. http://www.eurowrc.org/13.institutions/3.coe/04.en_coe.htm#A.%20Domestic%20violence (accessed March 9, 2012).Google Scholar
Council of Europe. 2006. Combating Violence against Women: Stocktaking Study on the Measures and Actions Taken in Council of Europe Member States. University of Osnabrück, Germany. http://ewlcentreonviolence.org/IMG/pdf/CoE_Combating_VAW_2006_.pdf (accessed March 9, 2012).Google Scholar
Council of Europe. 2011. Convention on Preventing and Combating Violence against Women and Domestic Violence. CM (2011) 49 final, April 7.Google Scholar
Dahlerup, Drude. 2006. “Introduction.” in Women, Quotas, and Politics, ed. Dahlerup, Drude. New York: Routledge. 3–31.Google Scholar
Dahlerup, Drude, and Freidenvall, Lenita. 2005. “Quotas as a Fast Track to Equal Representation for Women.” International Feminist Journal of Politics 7 (1): 26–48.Google Scholar
Daubler, Thomas. 2008. “Veto Players and Welfare State Change: What Delays Social Entitlement Bills?” Journal of Social Policy 37 (4): 683–706.Google Scholar
Davies, Miranda, ed. 1994. Women and Violence: Realities and Responses Worldwide. London: Zed Books.Google Scholar
Database of Political Institutions (DPI). http://go.worldbank.org/2EAGGLRZ40 (accessed January 31, 2010).Google Scholar
Dryzek, John S. 1990. Discursive Democracy: Politics, Policy and Political Science. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Dryzek, John, Downes, David, Hunold, Christian, and David Sclosberg (with Hans-Kristian Hernes). 2003. Green States and Social Movements. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Elman, R. Amy. 1993. “Debunking the Social Democrats and the Myth of Equality.” Women's Studies International Forum 16 (5): 513–22.Google Scholar
Elman, R. Amy. 1996. Sexual Subordination and State Intervention: Comparing Sweden and the United States. Oxford: Berghahn Books.Google Scholar
Elman, R. Amy. 2001. “Unprotected by the Swedish Welfare State Revisited: Assessing a Decade of Reforms for Battered Women.” Women's Studies International Forum 24 (1): 39–52.Google Scholar
Elman, R. Amy 2003. “Refuge in Reconstructed States: Shelter Movements in the United States, Britain, and Sweden.” In Women's Movements Facing the Reconfigured State, eds. Ann Banaszak, Lee, Beckwith, Karen, and Rucht, Dieter. New York: Cambridge University Press, 94–113.Google Scholar
Elman, R. Amy. 2007. Sexual Equality in an Integrated Europe: Virtual Equality. Europe in Transition: The NYU European Studies Series. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan.Google Scholar
Elman, R. Amy, and Eduards, Maud L.. 1991. “Unprotected by the Swedish Welfare State: A Survey of Battered Women and the Assistance They Received.” Women's Studies International Forum 14 (5): 413–21.Google Scholar
Esping-Andersen, Gøsta. 1990. The Three Worlds of Welfare Capitalism. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Estrich, Susan. 1987. Real Rape. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Eurobarometer Survey. 2010. http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_127_en.pdf (accessed October 2010).Google Scholar
Fábián, Katalin, ed. 2010. Domestic Violence in Postcommunist States. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.Google Scholar
Finnemore, Martha, and Sikkink, Kathryn. 1998. “International Norm Dynamics and Political Change.” International Organization 52 (Autumn): 887–917.Google Scholar
Fisher, Bonnie S., Cullen, Francis T., and Turner, Michael G.. 2000. The Sexual Victimization of College Women. NIJ Research Report. Washington, DC: National Institute of Justice. http://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/182369.pdf (accessed March 9, 2012).Google Scholar
Franceschet, Susan. 2010. “Explaining Domestic Violence Policy Outcomes in Chile and Argentina.” Latin American Politics and Society 52 (3): 1–29.Google Scholar
Freedom House. 2011. Freedom in the World 2011. http://freedomhouse.org/images/File/fiw/Tables%2C%20Graphs%2C%20etc%2C%20FIW%202011_Revised%201_11_11.pdf (accessed October 2011).Google Scholar
Friedman, Elisabeth J. 2003. Gendering the Agenda: The Impact of the Transnational Women's Rights Movement at the UN Conferences of the 1990s. Women's Studies International Forum 26 (4): 313–31.Google Scholar
Friedman, Elisabeth Jay. 1995. “Women's Human Rights: The Emergence of a Movement Perspective.” In Women's Rights, Human Rights: International Feminist Perspectives, eds. Peters, J. and Wolper, A.. New York: Routledge, 18–35.Google Scholar
Friedman, Elisabeth Jay. 2009. “Re(gion)alizing Women's Human Rights in Latin America.” Politics and Gender 5: 349–75.Google Scholar
Friedman, Elisabeth Jay. N.d. “Constructing ‘The Same Rights with the Same Names’: The Impact of Spanish Norm Diffusion on Marriage Equality in Argentina.” Latin American Politics and Society. Forthcoming.Google Scholar
Gelb, Joyce. 1989. Feminism and Politics: A Comparative Perspective. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Gelb, Joyce. 2003. Gender Policies in Japan and the United States: Comparing Women's Movements, Rights and Politics. New York: Palgrave.Google Scholar
Gelb, Joyce, and Lief Palley, Marian. 1996. Women and Public Policies: Reassessing Gender Politics. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press.Google Scholar
Global Finance (2011). The Richest Countries in the World. http://www.gfmag.com/tools/global-database/economic-data/10501-the-richest-countries-in-the-world.html# (accessed March 9, 2012).Google Scholar
Goodey, J. 2004. “Sex Trafficking in Women from Central and East European Countries: Promoting a ‘Victim-centered’ and ‘Woman-centered’ Approach to Criminal Justice.” Feminist Review 76: 26–45.Google Scholar
Graham-Kevan, N., and Archer, J.. 2003. Intimate Terrorism and Common Couple Violence: A Test of Johnson's Predictions in Four British Samples. Journal of Interpersonal Violence 18 (11): 1247–70.Google Scholar
Greenfeld, Lawrence A. 1997. Sex Offenses and Offenders: An Analysis of Data on Rape and Sexual Assault. U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Bureau of Justice Statistics.Google Scholar
Haas, Liesl 2010. Feminist Policymaking in Chile. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press.Google Scholar
Hall, Peter. 1993. “Policy Paradigms, Social Learning, and the State: The Case of Economic Policymaking in Britain.” Comparative Politics 25 (3): 275–96.Google Scholar
Heise, L., Ellsberg, M., and Gottemoeller, M.. 1999. Ending Violence against Women. Population Reports, Series L, No. 11. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University School of Public Health, Population Information Program.Google Scholar
Heise, Lori (with Jacqueline Pitanguy and Adrienne Germain). 1994. Violence against Women: The Hidden Health Burden. World Bank Discussion Papers. Washington, DC: World Bank.Google Scholar
Heise, Lori, Raikes, Alanagh, Watts, Charlotte H., and Zwi, Anthony B.. 1994. “Violence against Women: A Neglected Public Health Issue in Less Developed Countries.” Social Science and Medicine 39: 1165 –79Google Scholar
HEUNI. 2010. International Violence against Women Survey. http://www.heuni.fi/12859.htm (accessed March 9, 2012).Google Scholar
Howard, Christopher. 1997. The Hidden Welfare State: Tax Expenditures and Social Policy in the United States. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Htun, Mala. 1998. “Laws and Public Policies to Punish and Prevent Violence against Women in Latin America.” University of New Mexico. Unpublished paper.Google Scholar
Htun, Mala. 2003. Sex and the State: Abortion, Divorce and the Family under Latin American Dictatorships and Democracy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Htun, Mala, and Jones, Mark P.. 2002. “Engendering the Right to Participate in Decision Making: Electoral Quotas and Women's Leadership in Latin America.” In Gender, Rights and Justice in Latin America, eds. Craske, Nikki and Molyneux, Maxine. London: Palgrave, 69–93.Google Scholar
Htun, Mala, and Weldon, S. Laurel. 2010. “When and Why Do Governments Promote Sex Equality?” Perspectives on Politics 8 (1): 207–16.Google Scholar
Huber, Evelyn, and Stephens, John. 2001. Development and Crisis of the Welfare State: Parties and Policies in Global Markets. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Hug, Simon. 2003. “Selection Bias in Comparative Research: The Case of Incomplete Data Sets.” Political Analysis 11 (3): 255–74.Google Scholar
Incite! Women of Color against Violence. 2007. The Revolution Will Not Be Funded: Beyond the Non-profit Industrial Complex. Cambridge, MA: South End Press.Google Scholar
Inglehart, Ronald, and Norris, Pippa. 2003. Rising Tide: Gender Equality and Cultural Change Around the World. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Jackman, Robert W. 1985. “Cross-national Statistical Research and the Study of Comparative Politics.” American Journal of Political Science 29 (1): 161–82.Google Scholar
Joachim, Jutta. 1999. “Shaping the Human Rights Agenda: The Case of Violence against Women.” In Gender Politics in Global Governance, eds. Meyer, M.K. and Prügl, E.. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 142–60.Google Scholar
Joachim, Jutta. 2003. “Framing Issues and Seizing Opportunities: The UN, NGOs, and Women's Rights.” International Studies Quarterly 47: 247–74.Google Scholar
Johnson, Holly. 1995. “Seriousness, Type and Frequency of Violence against Wives.” Part 3 In Wife Assault and the Canadian Criminal Justice System: Issues and Policies, eds. Valverde, M., MacLeod, L., and Johnson, K.. Toronto: University of Toronto, 125–47.Google Scholar
Johnson, Holly. 1996. “Sexual Assault.” In Crime Counts: An Event Analysis, eds. Kennedy, L.W. and Sacco, V.F.. Toronto: Nelson.Google Scholar
Johnson, Holly, and Sacco, Vincent, 1995. “Researching Violence against Women: Statistics Canada's National Survey.” Canadian Journal of Criminology 37 (3): 281–304.Google Scholar
Johnson, Janet Elise. 2007. “Domestic Violence Politics in Post-Soviet States.” Social Politics: International Studies in Gender, State and Society 14 (3): 380–40.Google Scholar
Johnson, Janet Elise, and Zaynullina, Gulnara. 2010. “Global Feminism, Foreign Funding, and Russian Writing about Domestic Violence.” In Domestic Violence in Postcommunist States: Local Activism, National Policies, and Global Forces, ed. Fábián, Katalin. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 78–110.Google Scholar
Kantola, Johanna. 2006. Feminists Theorize the State. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave MacMillan.Google Scholar
Katzenstein, Mary Fainsod. 1995.”Discursive Politics and Feminist Activism in the Catholic Church.” In Feminist Organizations: Harvest of the New Women's Movement, eds. Ferree, Myra Marx and Yancey Martin, Patricia. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 35–52.Google Scholar
Katzenstein, Mary Fainsod. 1998. Faithful and Fearless. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Keck, Margaret, and Sikkink, Kathryn. 1998. Activists beyond Borders. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Kenworthy, Lane, and Malami, Melissa. 1999. “Gender Inequality in Political Representation: A Worldwide Comparative Analysis.” Social Forces 78: 235–69.Google Scholar
Khagram, Sanjeev, Riker, James V., and Sikkink, Kathryn, eds. 2002. Restructuring World Politics: Transnational Social Movements, Networks, and Norms. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.Google Scholar
Kingdon, John. W. 1984. Agendas, Alternatives, and Public Policies. Boston: Little, Brown.Google Scholar
Kittilson, Miki Caul. 2008. “Representing Women: The Adoption of Family Leave in Comparative Perspective.” Journal of Politics 70: 323–34.Google Scholar
Kittilson, Miki Caul, Sandholz, Wayne, and Gray, Mark. 2006. “Women and Globalization: A Study of 180 Countries, 1975–2000.” International Organization 60 (2): 293–333.Google Scholar
Kohn, M.L., ed. 1989. Cross-national Research in Sociology. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Korpi, Walter. 2006. “Power Resources and Employer-centered Approaches in Explanations of Welfare States and Varieties of Capitalism: Protagonists, Consenters, and Antagonists.”World Politics 58 (2): 167–206.Google Scholar
Krook, Mona Lena. 2009. Quotas for Women in Politics: Gender and Candidate Selection Worldwide. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Krook, Mona Lena, and O'Brien, Diana Z.. 2010. “The Politics of Group Representation: Quotas for Women and Minorities Worldwide.” Comparative Politics 42 (3): 253–72.Google Scholar
Levinson, David.1989. Family Violence in Cross-cultural Perspective. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Livingstone, S. 2003. “On the Challenges of Cross-national Comparative Media Research.” European Journal of Communication, 18 (4): 477–500.Google Scholar
MacKinnon, Catharine. 1989. Toward a Feminist Theory of the State. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Mainwaring, Scott, and Pérez-Liñán, Aníbal. N.d. The Emergence, Survival, and Fall of Democracies and Dictatorships: Latin America since 1900. New York: Cambridge University Press. Forthcoming.Google Scholar
Mansbridge, Jane. 1995. “What is the Feminist Movement?” In Feminist Organizations: Harvest of the New Women's Movement, eds. Marx Ferree, Myra and Yancey Martin, Patricia. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 27–34.Google Scholar
Mansbridge, Jane, and Morris, Aldous, eds. 2001. Oppositional Consciousness: The Subjective Roots of Social Protest. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Marshall, T.H. 1965. “Citizenship and Social Class.” In Class, Citizenship and Social Development: Essays by T. H. Marshall. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 78–126.Google Scholar
Martinez, Manuela, and Schröttle, Monika. 2006. “State of European Research on the Prevalence of Interpersonal Violence and its Impact on Health and Human Rights.” Prepared for Co-ordination Action on Human Rights Violations; funded by European Commission, 6th Framework, Project No. 506348. http://www.cahrv.uniosnabrueck.de/reddot/CAHRVreportPrevalence(1).pdf (accessed March 9, 2012).Google Scholar
Mazur, Amy G. 2002. Theorizing Feminist Policy. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
McAdam, Doug, and Su, Yang. 2002. “The War at Home: Antiwar Protests and Congressional Voting, 1965 to 1973.” American Sociological Review 67 (October): 696–721.Google Scholar
McAdam, Doug, Tarrow, Sidney, and Tilly, Charles. 2001. Dynamics of Contention. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
McBride, Dorothy, and Mazur, Amy. 2010. The Politics of State Feminism. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.Google Scholar
Merry, Sally Engle. 2006. Human Rights and Gender Violence: Translating International Law into Local Justice. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Meyer, David, 2005. “Introduction: Social Movements and Public Policy.” In Routing the Opposition: Social Movements, Public Policy and Democracy, eds. Meyer, D.S., Jenness, V., and Ingram, H.. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1–26.Google Scholar
Meyer, Mary K. 1999. “Negotiating International Norms: The Inter-American Commission on Women and the Convention on Violence against Women.” In Gender Politics in Global Governance, eds. Meyer, M.K. and Prügl, E.. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 59–70.Google Scholar
Moghadam, Valentine M. 2005. Globalizing Women: Transnational Feminist Networks. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.Google Scholar
Molyneux, Maxine. 1998. “Analyzing Women's Movements.” In Feminist Visions of Development: Gender Analysis and Policy, eds. Jackson, Cecile and Pearson, Ruth. London: Routledge, 65–88.Google Scholar
Montoya, Celeste. 2009. “International Initiative and Domestic Reforms: European Union Efforts to Combat Violence against Women.” Politics and Gender 5 (3): 325–48.Google Scholar
Montoya, Celeste. 2010. “The European Union, Transnational Advocacy and Violence against Women in Postcommunist States.” In Domestic Violence in Postcommunist States, ed. Fábián, Katalin. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 293–307.Google Scholar
Murray, Melissa. 2012. “Marriage as Punishment.” Columbia Law Review 112 (1): 1–65.Google Scholar
Nayak, M.B., Byrne, C.A., Martin, M.K., and Abraham, A.G.. 2003. “Attitudes toward Violence against Women: A Cross-national Study.” Sex Roles 49: 333–42.Google Scholar
Nelson, Sara. 1996. “Constructing and Negotiating Gender in Women's Police Stations in Brazil.” Latin American Perspectives 23 (1): 131–48.Google Scholar
Norris, Pippa. 1987. Politics and Sexual Equality: The Comparative Position of Women in Western Democracies. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner.Google Scholar
Offe, Claus. 1984. Contradictions of the Welfare State. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Omelicheva, Maria Y. 2011. Counterterrorism Policies in Central Asia. Abingdon, UK: Routledge.Google Scholar
Orloff, A. S. 1993.“Gender and Social Rights of Citizenship: The Comparative Analysis of Gender Relations and Welfare States.” American Sociological Review 58 (June): 303–28.Google Scholar
Organisation of the Islamic Conference (OIC). 2006. Statement to the 65th General Assembly of the United Nations. http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/documents/ga65/Org-of-Islamic-Conference.pdf (accessed March 9, 2012).Google Scholar
Piven, Frances, and Cloward, Richard. [1971] 1993. Regulating the Poor: The Functions of Public Welfare. New York: Vintage Books.Google Scholar
Pressman, Jeffrey, and Wildavsky, Aaron. 1979. Implementation. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Randall, Vicki and Waylen, Georgina, eds. 1998. Gender Politics and the State. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Raphael, Jody. 1996. “Domestic Violence and Welfare Receipt.” Harvard Women's Law Journal 19: 201–27.Google Scholar
Richie, Beth E., and Kanuha, Valli. 2000. “Battered Women of Color.” In Gender Basics: Feminist Perspectives on Women and Men, ed. Minas, Anne, 2nd ed.Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing, 213–20.Google Scholar
Rochon, Thomas R. 1998. Culture Moves: Ideas, Activism, and Changing Values. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Rochon, Thomas R., and Mazmanian, Daniel A.. 1993. “Social Movements and the Policy Process.” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 528 (July): 75–87.Google Scholar
Rodrik, Dani, and Zeckhauser, Richard. 1988. “The Dilemma of Government Responsiveness.” Journal of Policy Analysis and Management 7: 601–20.Google Scholar
Rudra, Nita. 2002. “Globalization and the Decline of the Welfare State in Less-Developed Countries.” International Organization 56 (2): 411–45.Google Scholar
Sanday, Peggy Reeves. 1981. Female Power and Male Dominance: On the Origins of Sexual Inequality. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Schwindt-Bayer, Leslie, and Mishler, William. 2005. “An Integrated Model of Women's Representation.” Journal of Politics 67 (2): 407–28.Google Scholar
Shipan, C., and Volden, C.. 2008. “The Mechanisms of Policy Diffusion.” American Journal of Political Science 52 (4): 840–57.Google Scholar
Sigelman, Lee, and Zeng, Langche. 1999. “Analyzing Censored and Sample-selected Data with Tobit and Heckit Models.” Political Analysis 8 (2): 167–82.Google Scholar
Simmons, Beth A. 2009. Mobilizing for Human Rights: International Law in Domestic Politics. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Skocpol, Theda. 1992. Protecting Soldiers and Mothers. Cambridge, MA. Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Skocpol, Theda. 2003. “>Voice and Inequality: The Transformation of American Civic Democracy.” American Political Science Association Presidential Address. http://www.apsanet.org/skocpol.cfm (accessed March 9, 2012).Voice+and+Inequality:+The+Transformation+of+American+Civic+Democracy.”+American+Political+Science+Association+Presidential+Address.+http://www.apsanet.org/skocpol.cfm+(accessed+March+9,+2012).>Google Scholar
Skocpol, Theda, and Amenta, Edwin. 1986. “States and Social Policies.” Annual Review of Sociology 12: 131–57.Google Scholar
Sternbach, Nancy, Navarro-Aranguren, Marysa, Chuchryk, Patricia, and Alvarez, Sonia E.. 1992. “Feminisms in Latin America: From Bogotá to San Bernardo.” Signs: A Journal of Women in Culture and Society 17 (3): 393–434.Google Scholar
Stetson, Dorothy McBride. 1998. Women's Rights in the USA. 2nd ed.New York: Garland.Google Scholar
Stetson, Dorothy McBride, and Mazur, Amy G., eds. 1995. Comparative State Feminism. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Strolovitch, Dara Z. 2006. “Do Interest Groups Represent the Disadvantaged? Advocacy at the Intersections of Race, Class, and Gender.” Journal of Politics 68 (4): 893–908.Google Scholar
Swank, Duane. 2001. “Mobile Capital, Democratic Institutions, and the Public Economy in Advanced Industrial Societies.” Journal of Comparative Policy Analysis 3 (2): 133–62.Google Scholar
Swers, Michele L. 2002. The Difference Women Make: The Policy Impact of Women in Congress. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Tarrow, Sidney. 1998. Power in Movement. 2nd ed.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Teorell, J., and Hadenius, A.. 2005. “Determinants of Democratization: Taking Stock of the Large-N Evidence.” Uppsala University. Mimeo.Google Scholar
Teorell, Jan, Charron, Nicholas, Samanni, Marcus, Holmberg, Sören, and Rothstein, Bo. 2011. The Quality of Government Dataset, version 6 Apr 11. University of Gothenburg: Quality of Government Institute. http://www.qog.pol.gu.se (accessed March 9, 2012).Google Scholar
Tjaden, Patricia, and Thoennes, Nancy. 1998. Prevalence, Incidence and Consequences of Violence against Women. Research in Brief. Washington, DC: National Institute of Justice.Google Scholar
Tjaden, Patricia, and Thoennes, Nancy. 2000. Extent, Nature, and Consequences of Intimate Partner Violence. NIJ Research Report. Washington, DC: National Institute of Justice.Google Scholar
Tripp, Aili Mari, Casimiro, Isabel, Kwesiga, Joy, and Mungwa, Alice. 2009. African Women's Movements: Changing Political Landscapes. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
True, Jacqui, and Mintrom, Michael, 2001. “Transnational Networks and Policy Diffusion: The Case of Gender Mainstreaming.” International Studies Quarterly 45 (1): 27–57.Google Scholar
United Nations (UN). 2006. “Directory of National Machineries for the Advancement of Women.” April DAW–DESA. http://www.unescap.org/esid/gad/Issues/Machineries/index.asp (accessed March 9, 2012).Google Scholar
United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA). 2007. Programming to Address Violence: Ten Case Studies. http://www.unfpa.org/webdav/site/global/shared/documents/publications/2007/vaw_10cases.pdf (accessed March 9, 2012).Google Scholar
United Nations Treaty Collection. 2012. http://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_n=IV-8&chapter=4&lang=en (accessed March 9, 2012).Google Scholar
U.S. Census Bureau. 2011. International Database. Demographic Overview. http://www.census.gov/population/international/data/idb/informationGateway.php (accessed November 2011).Google Scholar
Warner, Michael. 2002. “Beyond Gay Marriage.” In Left Legalism/Left Critique, eds. Brown, Wendy and Halley, Janet. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 259–89.Google Scholar
Warshaw, Robin. [1988] 1994. I Never Called it Rape: The Ms. Report on Recognizing, Fighting, and Surviving Date and Acquaintance Rape. New York: Harper Paperbacks.Google Scholar
Weldon, S.L. 2002a. Protest, Policy and the Problem of Violence against Women: A Cross-National Comparison. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press.Google Scholar
Weldon, S.L. 2002b. “Beyond Bodies: Institutional Sources of Representation for Women.” Journal of Politics 64 (4): 1153–74.Google Scholar
Weldon, S.L. 2004. “The Dimensions and Policy Impact of Feminist Civil Society.” International Feminist Journal of Politics 6 (1): 1–28.Google Scholar
Weldon., S.L. 2006a. “Women's Movements, Identity Politics and Policy Impact: A Study of Policies on Violence against Women in the 50 United States.” Political Research Quarterly 59 (1): 111–22.Google Scholar
Weldon, S.L. 2006b. “Inclusion, Solidarity and Social Movements: The Global Movement on Gender Violence.” Perspectives on Politics 4 (1): 55–74.Google Scholar
Weldon., S.L. 2011. When Protest Makes Policy: How Social Movements Represent Disadvantaged Groups. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.Google Scholar
Weyland, Kurt. 2005. “Theories of Policy Diffusion: Lessons from Latin American Pension Reform.” World Politics 57 (2): 262–95.Google Scholar
Wilensky, Harold. 1975. The Welfare State and Equality. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Williams, Andrew J. 2004. EU Human Rights Policies: A Study in Irony. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Wooldridge, Jeffrey M. 2010 Econometric Analysis of Cross-section and Panel Data, 2nd Edition. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
World Health Organization/London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine. 2010. Preventing Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence against Women: Taking Action and Generating Evidence. Geneva: World Health Organization.Google Scholar
Young, Iris Marion. 1990. Justice and the Politics of Difference. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Young, Iris Marion. 2000. Inclusion and Democracy. Series in Political Theory. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Supplementary material: File

Htun and Weldon supplementary material

Appendix

Download Htun and Weldon supplementary material(File)
File 55 KB