Hostname: page-component-8448b6f56d-jr42d Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-19T02:02:27.645Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Horses in Qin mortuary practice: new insights from Emperor Qin Shihuang's mausoleum

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 June 2022

Yue Li Open the ORCID record for Yue Li [Opens in a new window] ,
Lina Wu ,
Chengrui Zhang Open the ORCID record for Chengrui Zhang [Opens in a new window] ,
Huan Liu ,
Zexian Huang ,
Yifu Han  and
Jing Yuan
Yue Li
Affiliation:
School of Cultural Heritage, Northwest University, P.R. China Key Laboratory of Cultural Heritage Research and Conservation, Ministry of Education, Beijing, P.R. China China-Central Asia Belt and Road Joint Laboratory on Human and Environment Research, Northwest University, P.R. China
Lina Wu*
Affiliation:
Emperor Qinshihuang's Mausoleum Site Museum, Xi'an, P.R. China
Chengrui Zhang*
Affiliation:
Department of Anthropology, Harvard University, USA
Huan Liu
Affiliation:
School of Resource, Environment and Historical Culture, Xianyang Normal University, P.R. China
Zexian Huang
Affiliation:
School of Cultural Heritage, Northwest University, P.R. China Key Laboratory of Cultural Heritage Research and Conservation, Ministry of Education, Beijing, P.R. China
Yifu Han
Affiliation:
Lvshun Museum, Dalian, P.R. China
Jing Yuan*
Affiliation:
Institute of Archaeological Science, Fudan University, P.R. China Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, Beijing, P.R. China
*
*Authors for correspondence ✉ wlnhjw@163.com, chengrui_zhang@g.harvard.edu & yuanjing@cass.org.cn
*Authors for correspondence ✉ wlnhjw@163.com, chengrui_zhang@g.harvard.edu & yuanjing@cass.org.cn
*Authors for correspondence ✉ wlnhjw@163.com, chengrui_zhang@g.harvard.edu & yuanjing@cass.org.cn
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

The horse played a crucial role in China through the first millennium BC, used both for military advantage and, through incorporation into elite burials, to express social status. Details of how horses were integrated into mortuary contexts during the Qin Empire, however, are poorly understood. Here, the authors present new zooarchaeological data for 24 horses from an accessory pit in Qin Shihuang's mausoleum, indicating that the horses chosen were tall, adult males. These findings provide insights into the selection criteria for animals to be included in the emperor's tomb and invite consideration of questions concerning horse breeds, husbandry practices, and the military and symbolic importance of horses in early imperial China.

Keywords

ChinaQinEmperor Qin Shihuanghorsemortuaryzooarchaeology
Type
Research Article
Information
Antiquity , Volume 96 , Issue 388 , August 2022 , pp. 903 - 919
Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s), 2022. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of Antiquity Publications Ltd.

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Cai, D. et al. 2018. Shaanxi Fengxiang Qingong Yihao Damu Chemakeng Magu Yihai Gu DNA Yanjiu. Kaogu Yu Wenwu 3: 106–12.Google Scholar
Cao, L., Geng, Q. & Hu, S.. 2018. Shaanxi Xianyang Yanjiazhai Zhanguo Qin Yizhi Muzang Fajue Jianbao. Kaogu Yu Wenwu 4: 18–41.Google Scholar
Chen, Z. & Zhao, Y.. 2014. Qin Shihuangdi Lingyuan K0006 Peizangkeng Xingzhi Shitan. Wenbo 5: 34–39.Google Scholar
The Chinese People's Liberation Army University of Veterinary Medicine (ed.). 1979. Mati Jiepou Tupu. Changchun: Jilin Renmin Chubanshe.Google Scholar
Collins, E. & Hallam, D.. 1983. The farm horse economy of England and Wales in the early tractor age 1900–40, in Thompson, F. (ed.) Horses in European economic history: a preliminary canter: 73–100. Reading: The British Agricultural History Society.Google Scholar
Cooke, B. (ed.). 2000. Imperial China: the art of the horse in Chinese history. Lexington: Kentucky Horse Park & Harmony House.Google Scholar
Creel, H.G. 1965. The role of the horse in Chinese history. American Historical Review 70: 647–72. https://doi.org/10.2307/1845936CrossRefGoogle Scholar
von den Driesch, A. 1976. A guide to the measurement of animal bones from archaeological sites. Cambridge (MA): Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
von den Driesch, A. & Boessneck, J.. 1974. Kritische Anmerkungen zur Widerristhöhenberechnung aus Längenmaßen vor- und frühgeschichtlicher Tierknochen. Säugetierkundliche Mitteilung 22: 325–48.Google Scholar
Duan, Q. 2002. Qin Shihuangdi Lingyuan K0006 Peizangkeng Xingzhi Chuyi. Zhongguo Lishi Wenwu 2: 59–66.Google Scholar
Duan, Q. 2011. Qin Shihuangdi Lingyuan Kaogu Yanjiu. Beijing: Beijing Daxue Chubanshe.Google Scholar
Fages, A., Seguin-Orlando, A., Germonpré, M. & Orlando, L.. 2020. Horse males became over-represented in archaeological assemblages during the Bronze Age. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 31: 102364. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2020.102364Google Scholar
von Falkenhausen, L. & Shelach-Lavi, G.. 2013. Introduction: archaeological perspectives on the Qin “unification” of China, in Pines, Y., Shelach-Lavi, G., von Falkenhausen, L. & Yates, R.D.S. (ed.) Birth of an empire: the State of Qin revisited: 37–52. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Francfort, H.-P. & Lepetz, S.. 2010. Les chevaux de Berel’ (Altaï). Chevaux steppiques et chevaux achéménides: haras et races, in Gardeisen, A., Furet, E. & Boulbes, N. (ed.) Histoire d'équidés: des textes, des images et des os: 110–21. Lattes: Association pour le Développement de l'Archéologie en Languedoc-Roussillon.Google Scholar
Gansu Provincial Institute of Cultural Relics and Archaeology. 2009. Chongxin Yujiawan Zhoumu. Beijing: Wenwu Chubanshe.Google Scholar
Guo, X. 1985. Lun Qindai Yangma Jishu. Kaogu Yu Wenwu 1: 294–301 & 343.Google Scholar
Hayashida, S. & Yamauchi, C.. 1957. Deduction of withers height from the length of the bone in the horse. Bulletin of the Faculty of Agriculture at Kagoshima University 12: 146–56.Google Scholar
Hou, H. 2018. Gansu Lixian Dabuzishan Qinmu Ji Fuzang Chema Keng Fajue Jianbao. Wenwu 1: 4–25.Google Scholar
Hou, Y., Zhang, C., Ma, X. & Wang, J.. 2013. Shanxi Licheng Kaihou Mudi Chutu Jisi Dongwu Guge Jianding Yu Fenxi. Jianghan Kaogu 4: 106–15.Google Scholar
Hu, S. 2018. Dongwu Guge Yanjiu, in Shaanxi Provincial Institute of Archaeology, Yanan Institute of Cultural Relics & Huangling Bureau of Tourism and Cultural Relics (ed.) Zhaitouhe: Shaanxi Huangling Zhanguo Rongren Mudi Kaogu Fajue Baogao: 51–73. Shanghai: Shanghai Guji Chubanshe.Google Scholar
Huang, W., Sun, J. & Huang, F.. 2018. Hubei Zaoyang Jiuliandun Erhao Chemakeng Fajue Jianbao. Jianghan Kaogu 6: 56–75.Google Scholar
Institute of Animal Sciences at Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences. 1986. Zhongguo Malv Pinzhong Zhi. Shanghai: Shanghai Kexue Jishu Chubanshe.Google Scholar
Jeffcott, L. 1999. Historical perspective and clinical indications. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Equine Practice 15: 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0749-0739(17)30160-8Google ScholarPubMed
Jiang, W. 2001. Cong Chutu Wenwu Kan Qinhan Shiqi Yangma Ye Jiqi Xiangguan Wenti. Nongye Kaogu 1: 1–12.Google Scholar
Kelekna, P. 2009. The horse in human history. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Kiesewalter, L. 1888. Skelettmessungen am Pferde als Beitrag zur theoretischen Grundlage der Beurteilungslehre des Pferdes. Unpublished PhD dissertation, Leipzig University.Google Scholar
Ledderose, L. (ed.). 2000. A magic army for the emperor, in Ten thousand things: module and mass production in Chinese art: 51–73. Princeton (NJ): Princeton University Press. https://doi.org/10.2307/2672453Google Scholar
Lepetz, S., Debue, Y. & Batsukh, D.. 2020. To accompany and honour the deceased: the horses from the graves of the Pazyryk Culture, in Pankova, S.V. & Simpson, J. (ed.) Masters of the Steppe: the impact of the Scythians and later nomad societies of Eurasia: 227–47. Oxford: Archaeopress. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv1fcf8hh.23Google Scholar
Levine, M.A., Whitwelle, K.E. & Jeffcott, L.B.. 2005. Abnormal thoracic vertebrae and the evolution of horse husbandry. Archaeofauna 14: 93–109.Google Scholar
Lewis, M.E. 2007. The early Chinese empires: Qin and Han. Cambridge (MA): Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Li, X., Li, Y., Zhang, C. & Liu, H.. 2020. Neimenggu Sunite Youqi Mumin Jiachu Siyang Yu Liyong De Minzuxue Diaocha. Nanfang Wenwu 4: 187–95.Google Scholar
Li, X. et al. 2014. Crossbows and imperial craft organisation: the bronze triggers of China's terracotta army. Antiquity 88: 126–40. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003598X00050262CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Li, X. et al. 2016. Marking practices and the making of the Qin Terracotta Army. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 42: 169–83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaa.2016.04.002CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Li, Y., Chen, H., Yuan, J. & Wang, Z.. 2014. Chunhua Zaoshugounao Yizhi Makeng Chutu Magu Yanjiu. Xibei Daxue Xuebao (Ziran Kexue Ban) 44: 311–17.Google Scholar
Li, Y., Ding, Y. & Song, Y.. 2018. Shaanxi Yichuan Xian Chongpingyuan Chunqiu Yizhi Fajue Jianbao. Kaogu Yu Wenwu 2: 3–21.Google Scholar
Li, Y., Wang, G., Mao, R. & Zhao, W.. 2005. Gansu Lixian Yuandingshan Chunqiu Qinmu (98LDM2, 2000LDM4). Wenwu 2: 4–27.Google Scholar
Li, Y. et al. 2020. Early evidence for mounted horseback riding in north-west China. Proceedings of National Academy of Sciences of the USA 117: 29569–76. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2004360117CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Liu, H. 2019. Gansu Tianshui Maojiaping Yizhi Dongwu Yanjiu. Unpublished PhD dissertation, Northwest University.Google Scholar
Luo, Y., Xia, Y., Yuan, J. & Yang, M.. 2009. Peizangkeng Chutu Dongwu Guge Yanjiu Baogao, in Luoyang Working Team of Cultural Relics (ed.) Luoyang Dongzhou Wangcheng Guangchang Dongzhou Mu: 453–64. Beijing: Wenwu Chubanshe.Google Scholar
Mao, R., Li, Y., Zhao, W. & Wang, G.. 2002. Lixian Yuandingshan Chunqiu Qinmu. Wenwu 2: 4–30.Google Scholar
Marth, M. 1998. Florida horse owner's field guide. Sarasota (FL): Pineapple Press.Google Scholar
Martinón-Torres, M. et al. 2011. Making weapons for the Terracotta Army. Archaeology International 13: 65–75. https://doi.org/10.5334/ai.1316CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Martinón-Torres, M. et al. 2014. Forty thousand arms for a single emperor: from chemical data to labor organization in the production of bronze arrows for the Terracotta Army. Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory 21: 534–62. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10816-012-9158-zCrossRefGoogle Scholar
May, E. 1985. Widerristhöhe und Langknochenmasse bei Pferden: ein immer noch aktuelles Problem. Zeitschrift für Säugetierkunde 50: 368–82.Google Scholar
Myers, J. 2005. Horse safe: a complete guide to equine safety. Clayton: CSIRO. https://doi.org/10.1071/9780643093065CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Portal, J. (ed.). 2007. The first emperor: the making of China, in The first emperor: China's Terracotta Army: 14–29. Cambridge (MA): Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Processing Team of the Shuihudi Qin Bamboo Texts. 1978. Shuihudi Qinmu Zhujian. Beijing: Wenwu Chubanshe.Google Scholar
Qin Terracotta Warriors Archaeological Team. 1980. Qinshihuang Ling Dongce Majiu Keng Zuantan Qingli Jianbao. Kaogu Yu Wenwu 4: 31–41.Google Scholar
Qiu, G. 1992. Zhongguo Gudai Duliangheng Yanjiu. Beijing: Kexue Chubanshe.Google Scholar
Quinn, P., Zhang, S. & Li, X.. 2017. Building the Terracotta Army: ceramic craft technology and organisation of production at Qin Shihuang's mausoleum complex. Antiquity 91: 966–79. https://doi.org/10.15184/aqy.2017.126CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Quinn, P. et al. 2020. Geochemical evidence for the manufacture, logistics and supply-chain management of Emperor Qin Shihuang's Terracotta Army, China. Archaeometry 63: 40–52. https://doi.org/10.1111/arcm.12613CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rooney, J. 1997. Equid paleopathology. Journal of Equine Veterinary Science 17: 430–46. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0737-0806(97)80160-8CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rudenko, S.I. 1970. Frozen tombs of Siberia: the Pazyryk burials of Iron Age horsemen. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Shaanxi Provincial Institute of Archaeology & Archaeological Team of the Terracotta Army Pits of the Emperor Qinshihuang's Mausoleum. 1988. Qin Shihuang Ling Bingmayong Keng Yihao Keng Fajue Baogao. Beijing: Wenwu Chubanshe.Google Scholar
Shaanxi Provincial Institute of Archaeology & Emperor Qinshihuang's Mausoleum Site Museum. 2000. Qin Shihuangdi Lingyuan Kaogu Baogao (1999). Beijing: Kexue Chubanshe.Google Scholar
Shang, Z. & Zhao, C.. 1986. Shaanxi Fengxiang Baqitun Xigoudao Qinmu Fajue Jianbao. Wenbo 3: 1–31.Google Scholar
Shelach-Lavi, G. 2015. The archaeology of early China: from prehistory to the Han Dynasty. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139022682CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shelach-Lavi, G., Yitzchak, J. & Bar-Oz, G.. 2021. Cavalry and the great walls of China and Mongolia. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 118: e2024835118. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2024835118CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Silver, I. 1969. The ageing of domestic animals, in Brothwell, D. & Higgs, E. (ed.) Science in archaeology: a survey of progress and research: 283–301. London: Thames & Hudson.Google Scholar
Sisson, S. 1953. The anatomy of the domestic animals. Philadelphia (PA): Saunders.Google Scholar
Song, Y. & Hao, D.. 2017. Shandong Yishui Jiwanggu M1 Dongwu Jianding Baogao. Haidai Kaogu 10: 178–93.Google Scholar
Sun, D. 1996. You Xianyang Qima Yong Tandao Zhanguo Qin Qibing. Kaogu Yu Wenwu 5: 18–21.Google Scholar
Tian, Y. et al. 2013. Shaanxi Fengxiang Sunjianantou Chunqiu Qinmu Fajue Jianbao. Kaogu Yu Wenwu 4: 3–34 & 53.Google Scholar
Vitt, V.O. 1952. Losadi Pazyrykskich kurganov. Sovetskaja Archeologija 16: 163–205.Google Scholar
Waley, A. 1955. The heavenly horses of Ferghana. History Today 5: 95–103. https://doi.org/10.2307/1397111Google Scholar
Wu, H-Y. 2013. Chariots in early China: origins, cultural interaction, and identity (British Archaeological Reports International Series 2457). Oxford: Archaeopress. https://doi.org/10.30861/9781407310657Google Scholar
Xie, C. 1991. Zhongguo Yangma Shi. Beijing: Zhongguo Nongye Chubanshe.Google Scholar
Yang, B. 1987. Anyang Wuguancun Beidi Shangdi JisiKeng De Fajue. Kaogu 12: 1062–70 & 1145.Google Scholar
Yates, R.D.S. 2007. The rise of Qin and the military conquest of the Warring States, in Portal, J. (ed.) The first emperor: China's Terracotta Army: 30–57. Cambridge (MA): Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Yuan, J. 2006. Shaanxi Lintong Qin Shihuang Lingyuan K0006 Hao Peizangkeng Chutu Magu De Yanjiu Baogao, in Shaanxi Provincial Institute of Archaeology & Emperor Qinshihuang's Mausoleum Site Museum (ed.) Qin Shihuang Lingyuan Kaogu Baogao (2000): 226–33. Beijing: Wenwu Chubanshe.Google Scholar
Yuan, J. & Flad, R.. 2003. Two issues concerning ancient domesticated horses in China. Bulletin of the Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities 75: 110–26.Google Scholar
Yuan, J. & Yang, M.. 2005. Qianzhangda Yizhi Chutu Dongwu Guge Yanjiu Baogao, in Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences (ed.) Tengzhou Qianzhangda Mudi: 728–810. Beijing: Wenwu Chubanshe.Google Scholar
Yuan, Z. 1990. Qin Shihuang Ling Binmayong Yanjiu. Beijing: Wenwu Chubanshe.Google Scholar
Yuan, Z. 2002. Qin Shihuang Ling Kaogu Faxian Yu Yanjiu. Xi'an: Shaanxi Renmin Chubanshe.Google Scholar
Yun, A. 1984. Shaanxi Changwu Shangmengcun Qinguo Muzang Fajue Jianbao. Kaogu Yu Wenwu 3: 8–17.Google Scholar
Zhang, T. & Ding, Y.. 2008. Shaanxi Chang'an Shenheyuan Zhanguo Qin Lingyuan Yizhi Tianye Kaogu Xin Shouhuo. Kaogu Yu Wenwu 5: 111–12.Google Scholar
Zhang, Y. 2000. Qinmu Chema Xunzang Zhidu De Chubu Yanjiu, in Yuan, Z. (ed.) Qinyong Qin Wenhua Yanjiu: 481–90. Xi'an: Shaanxi Renmin Chubanshe.Google Scholar
Zhao, H. 2011. Dongzhou Qinhan Shiqi Chema Maizang Yanjiu. Beijing: Kexue Chubanshe.Google Scholar
Zhou, B. 1996. Taiyuan Jinguo Zhaoqing Mu Dongwu Guhai Jianding, in Shanxi Provincial Institute of Archaeology & Taiyuan Administration of Cultural Relics Management (ed.) Taiyuan Jinguo Zhaoqing Mu: 248–52. Beijing: Wenwu Chubanshe.Google Scholar
Supplementary material: PDF

Li et al. supplementary material

Li et al. supplementary material

Download Li et al. supplementary material(PDF)
PDF 300.6 KB