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Scenes of deep national division, competition, and conflict dominate standard historical narratives about the Austro-Hungarian monarchy during the late nineteenth century and most of its successor states in the 1920s and 1930s. Nationalist political movements flourished in this multicultural environment as capitalist agricultural and industrial development encouraged popular social ambitions and resentments over inequalities, while the advance of modern civil society and constitutional government provided public space for political movements. After the 1860s, political parties committed to nationalist interests increasingly dominated middle-class politics, and by 1900 national loyalties created growing fissures even in the ostensibly international Social Democratic movement. Some of the most intense nationalist social and political competition developed in the Crownlands of Bohemia, Moravia, and Silesia between Czech and German national interests. The Bohemian capital, Prague, became the stage for repeated mass nationalist demonstrations and rioting in the 1890s and after 1900 (see Figure 1).
1 Freud discussed the street signs in a letter to Wilhelm Fliess of 3 Dec. 1897, and German-language street signs found their way into one of his dreams about going to Rome. See Masson, J. M., ed., The Complete Letters of Sigmund Freud to Wilhelm Fliess, 1887–1904 (Cambridge, MA, 1985), 284–85.
2 On the situation of the Jewish population in Prague around 1900, see Cohen, Gary B., “Jews in German Society, 1860–1914,” Central European History 10 (1977): 28–54; and Kieval, Hillel J., The Making of Czech Jewry (Cambridge, MA, 1988). The 1900 population statistics derive from Srb, Jan, ed., Sčítání lidu v král. hl. městě Praze a obcech sousedních provedené 31. prosince 1900 [Census of the Population in the Royal Capital City Prague and the Surrounding Communities carried out on 31 December 1900], 3 vols. (Prague, 1902–08), vol. 1, 88–96.
3 See Agnew, Hugh L., Origins of the Czech National Renascence (Pittsburgh/London, 1993); Peter Bugge, “Czech Nation-Building, National Self-Perception and Politics 1780–1914,” (PhD diss., University of Aarhus, 1994); Cohen, Gary B., The Politics of Ethnic Survival: Germans in Prague, 1861–1914, 2nd ed., rev. (West Lafayette, IN, 2006); Kořalka, Jiří, Tschechen im Habsburgerreich und in Europe 1815–1914 (Vienna/Munich, 1991); idem, Češi v Habsburské Říši a v Europě 1815–1914 [Czechs in the Habsburg Empire and Europe 1815–1914] (Prague, 1996); and Sayer, Derek, The Coasts of Bohemia: A Czech History (Princeton, NJ, 1998).
4 On habitus, see Bourdieu, Pierre, Outline of a Theory of Practice (Cambridge, UK, 1977), 72–95; idem, The Logic of Practice (Stanford, CA, 1990); and Calhoun, Craig, “Nationalism and Ethnicity,” Annual Review of Sociology 19 (1993): 211–39, at 222.
5 On the boycotts, see Albrecht, Catherine, “The Rhetoric of Economic Nationalism in the Bohemian Boycott Campaigns of the Late Habsburg Monarchy,” Austrian History Yearbook 32 (2001): 47–68.
6 Kohn, Hans, Living in a World Revolution (New York, 1964; reprinted, 1965), 9–10.
7 See the population statistics in Cohen, Politics of Ethnic Survival, 2nd ed., rev., 70–71.
8 Politzer, Heinz, “Prague and the Origins of Rainer Maria Rilke, Franz Kafka, and Franz Werfel,” Modern Languages Quarterly 16 (1955): 49–63.
9 Eisner, Pavel, Franz Kafka and Prague, trans. Nelson, Lowry and Wellek, René (New York, 1950), 44–45.
10 Brod, Max, Der Prager Kreis (Stuttgart/Berlin/Cologne/Mainz, 1966), 37.
11 Kisch, Egon Erwin, Gesammelte Werke, VII: Marktplatz der Sensationen, Entdeckungen in Mexiko (Berlin/Weimar, 1979), 85–86. For Czech reminiscences of the comparative wealth and haughtiness of Prague's German-speaking minority, see Herrmann, Ignát, Ze staré Prahy [From Old Prague] (Prague, 1970), 74; and Štech, Václav Vilém, Vzpomínky, I: V zamlženém zrcadle [Memoirs, I: In a Foggy Mirror] (Prague, 1967), 51–52, 95.
12 Kleinwächter, Friedrich F. G., Der Untergang der österreichisch-ungarischen Monarchie (Leipzig, 1920), 142–43.
13 See Cohen, Politics of Ethnic Survival, 2nd ed., rev, 93–104; and idem, “Deutsche, Juden und Tschechen in Prag: Das Sozialleben des Alltags, 1890–1924,” in Allemands, Juifs et Tchèques à Prague—Deutsche, Juden und Tschechen in Prag, 1890–1924, ed. Godé, Maurice, Rider, J. Le, and Mayer, F., 55–69 (Montpellier, 1996).
14 See Cohen, Politics of Ethnic Survival, 2nd ed., rev., passim; idem, “Deutsche, Juden und Tschechen in Prag: das Sozialleben des Alltags, 1890–1924,” 55–69; Zahra, Tara, Kidnapped Souls: National Indifference and the Battle for Children in the Bohemian Lands, 1900–1948 (Ithaca, NY/London, 2008), passim; Bryant, Chad, Prague in Black: Nazi Rule and Czech Nationalism (Cambridge, MA, 2007), passim; Čapková, Kateřina, Czechs, Germans, Jews? National Identity and the Jews of Bohemia, trans. Derek and Paton, Marzia (New York/Oxford, 2012), passim; Frommer, Benjamin, National Cleansing: Retribution against Nazi Collaborators in Postwar Czechoslovakia (Cambridge, UK, 2005), passim; and Koeltzsch, Ines, Geteilte Kulturen. Eine Geschichte der tschechisch-jüdisch-deutschen Beziehungen in Prag (1918–1938) (Munich, 2012), 1–87.
15 On leadership in the early stages of nationalist movements in the Habsburg lands and elsewhere in Europe, see Hroch, Miroslav, Die Vorkämpfer der nationalen Bewegung bei den kleinen Völkern Europas. Acta Universitatis Carolinae Philosopohica et Historia Monographia 24 (Prague, 1968) [English trans., Social Preconditions of National Revival in Europe: A Comparative Analysis of the Social Composition of Patriotic Groups among the Smaller European Nations. (Cambridge, UK, 1985)]; and idem, Obrození malých evropských národů. I. Národy severní a východní Evropy [The Revival of Small European Nations, I: The Nations of Northern and Eastern Europe] (Prague, 1971). On the social bases of the Czech national movement in its early phases, see also Bugge, “Czech Nation-Building,” 16–59; Kořalka, Tschechen im Habsburgerreich, 76–125; and Sayer, Coasts of Bohemia, 53–93, passim.
16 On the history of the Czech National Theater, see Dějiny Národního divadla [History of the National Theater], 6 vols. (Prague, 1933–36); Kimball, Stanley B., Czech Nationalism: A Study of the National Theatre Movement 1845–83 (Urbana, IL, 1964); Locke, Brian S., Opera and Ideology in Prague: Polemics and Practice at the National Theatre 1900–1938 (Rochester, NY, 2006), 18–22; Storck, Christoph P., Kulturnation und Nationalkunst: Strategien und Mechanismen tschechischer Nationsbildung von 1860 bis 1914 (Cologne, 2001), 213–28; and Ther, Philipp, Národní divadlo v kontextu evropských operních dějin. Od založení do první světové války [The National Theater in the Context of European Opera History. From the Founding to the First World War] (Prague, 2008).
17 For a large-scale Czech survey of painting, sculpture, applied arts, and architecture in nineteenth-century Prague, see Poche, Emanuel, ed., Praha národního probuzení [The Prague of the National Revival] (Prague, 1980). For a discussion of public architecture in Lemberg/Lwów/Lviv, the capital of Austrian Galicia, which stresses the importance of Austrian architectural elements there, see Prokopovych, Markian, Habsburg Lemberg: Architecture, Public Space, and Politics in the Galician Capital, 1772–1914 (West Lafayette, IN, 2008).
18 On the history of the New German Theater in Prague, see Rosenheim, Richard, Die Geschichte der deutschen Bühnen in Prag (Prague, 1938); and Teweles, Heinrich, Theater und Publikum (Prague, 1927).
19 Teuber, Oscar, Geschichte des Prager Theaters. Von den Anfängen des Schauspielwesens bis auf die neueste Zeit. Dritter Theil. Vom Tode Liebichs, des größten Prager Bühnenleiters, bis auf unsere Tage (1817–1887) (Prague, 1885), 789. See also Ther, Národní divadlo v kontextu, 186–87, who follows Teuber here.
20 Teweles, Theater und Publikum, 136, 184.
21 Štech, Vzpomínky, I: V zamlženém zrcadle, 59.
22 Teweles, Theater und Publikum, 184; Kukula, Richard, Erinnerungen eines Bibliothekars (Weimar, 1925), 37; Ther, Národní divadlo v kontextu, 218.
23 Vogel, Jaroslav, Leoš Janáček. Život a dílo [Leoš Janáček: Life and Works] (Prague, 1963), 216.
24 Teweles, Theater und Publikum, 184; Gorrell, Lorraine, Discordant Melody: Alexander Zemlinsky, His Songs, and the Second Viennese School (Westbook, CT, 2002), 236, n. 12; and Tancsik, Pamela, Die Prager Oper heisst Zemlinsky: Theatergeschichte des Neuen Deutschen Theaters Prag in der Ära Zemlinsky von 1911–1927 (Vienna, 2000), 415.
25 Ther, Národní divadlo v kontextu, 218.
26 See Egon Basch, “Wirken und Wandern: Lebenserinnerungen” (mimeograph, n.d., Leo Baeck Institute, New York), 16–20; Langer, František, Byli a bylo [They Were and It Was] (Prague, 1963), 172–73; and Kukula, Richard, Erinnerungen eines Bibliothekars (Weimar, 1925), 37–38.
27 Lemberg, Eugen, “Ein Leben in Grenzzonen und Ambivalenzen. Erinnerungen,” in Lebensbilder zur böhmischen Geschichte 5, ed. Seibt, Ferdinand, 131–278 (Munich, 1986), at 157–58, cited in Koeltzsch, Geteilte Kulturen, 282. See also Jakubcová, Alena, Ludvová, Jitka, and Maidl, Václav, eds., Deutschsprachiges Theater in Prag. Begegnungen der Sprachen und Kulturen (Prague, 2001).
28 Blaukopf, Kurt, Gustav Mahler, trans. Goodwin, Inge (New York and Washington, 1973), 71.
29 See the discussion of Mahler's efforts to produce Czech operas in Vienna in de la Grange, Henry-Louis, Gustav Mahler, vol. 2. Vienna: The Years of Challenge (1897–1904) (Oxford and New York, 1995), 65–67, 190; and David Brodbeck, Defining Deutschtum: Political Ideology, German Identity, and Music-Critical Discourse in Liberal Vienna (New York and Oxford, forthcoming).
30 de la Grange, Henry-Louis, Gustav Mahler, vol. 4. A New Life Cut Short (1907–1911) (Oxford/New York, 2008), 180.
31 Štech, Vzpomínky, I: V zamlženém zrcadle, 48.
32 Rauchberg, Heinrich, Der nationale Besitzstand in Böhmen, 3 vols. (Leipzig, 1905), vol. 2, 368.
33 On language study in Prague's German schools, see Luft, Robert, “Sprache und Nationalität an Prager Gymnasien um 1900,” in Brücken nach Prag. Deutschsprachige Literatur im kulturellen Kontext der Donaumonarchie und der Tschechoslowakei. Festschrift für Kurt Krolop zum 70. Geburtstag, ed. Ehlers, Klaas-Hinrich, Höhne, Steffen, Maidl, Václav, and Nekula, Marek, 105–22 (Frankfurt, 2000); and Cohen, Politics of Ethnic Survival, 2nd ed., rev., 98–100.
34 Conversation in Prague, spring 1973, with Ruda Havránková [née Bondyová] (1905–1983), mother of the historian Jan Havránek.
35 See Storck, Kulturnation und Nationalkunst, 228–34; and the detailed description with lists of concerts in Lébl, Vladimir and Ludvová, Jitka, “Pražské orchestrální koncerty v letech 1860–1895” [Prague Orchestral Concerts in the Period 1860–1895], Hudební věda 17, no. 2 (1980): 99–138.
36 Ibid., 111–15. See also Teweles, Theater und Publikum, 213–14. The Bohemian Savings Bank (Česká spořitelna/Böhmische Sparkasse) built the Rudolfinum to serve the arts in Prague on an ostensibly nationally neutral basis, although many Czech nationalists considered the bank's management to be German-leaning.
37 Dalibor 6, no. 46 (14 Dec. 1884): 455–57.
38 Bohemia, 6 Dec. 1884 (Beilage), 1.
39 Prager Tagblatt, 5 Dec. 1884 (Beilage), 8.
40 Prager Tagblatt, 6 Dec. 1884 (Beilage), 7.
41 On the national politics of symphonic music in Vienna during the last third of the century, see Brodbeck, Defining Deutschtum, passim; idem, “Dvorák's Reception in Liberal Vienna: Language Ordinances, National Property, and the Rhetoric of Deutschtum,” Journal of the American Musicological Society 60 (2007): 71–131; and idem, “Ausgleichs-Abende: The First Viennese Performances of Smetana's Bartered Bride,” Austrian Studies 17 (2009): 43–61. For the national politics of music criticism and reception in Germany and Austria during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries more broadly, see Painter, Karen, Symphonic Aspirations: German Music and Politics, 1900–1945 (Cambridge, MA, 2008).
42 De la Grange, Gustav Mahler, vol. 4. A New Life Cut Short, 177.
43 On Mahler's concert programs in Prague in 1908, see Gustav Mahler a Praha. Ke 110. výročí pražského pusobení 1885–1886 / Gustav Mahler und Prag. Zur 110. Wiederkehr seines Wirkens in Prag 1885–1886 (Prague, 1996), 83. On the 1908 exposition, see Jiránek, Tomáš, “K jubileu našeho císaře. Výstava obchodní a živnostenské komory v Praze” [For the Jubilee of Our Emperor: The Exposition of the Prague Chambers of Trade and Manufacture], Dějiny a současnost, 12/2008. http://dejinyasoucasnost.cz/archiv/2008/12/k-jubileu-naseho-cisare/ (accessed 29 Aug. 2013).
44 Gustav Mahler a Praha, 82–85. The Czech daily newspapers in Prague did not publish reviews of Mahler's concerts in the New German Theater, but the Czech musical journal Dalibor reviewed his 1899 and 1904 concerts as well as Leo Blech's performances of Mahler's music in 1902 and 1905, suggesting interest on the part of the Czech musical cognoscenti. The German daily newspapers in Prague did not publish reviews of the Czech Philharmonic's performances of Mahler's music between 1903 and 1912.
45 Bohemia, 22 May 1908 (morning), 1.
46 Bohemia, 24 May 1908 (morning), 25. On Felix Adler, see “Mahler's German Language Critics,” ed. and trans. by Painter, Karen and Varwig, Bettina, in Mahler and His World, ed. Painter, 267–378 (Princeton, NJ, and Oxford, 2002), at 317–18.
47 Prager Tagblatt, 24 May 1908 (morning), 15. On Batka, see Painter, Symphonic Aspirations, 69, 133; and, “Mahler's German Language Critics,” ed. and trans. by Painter and Varwig, 320–23.
48 Den, 26 May 1908.
49 On Nejedlý's championing of a modern Czech music and his criticisms of conservative Czech musical figures, see Locke, Opera and Ideology in Prague, 35, 74, 113, 115–21; and Křesťan, Jiří, Zdeněk Nejedlý, politik a vědec v osamění [Zdeněk Nejedlý, Politician and Scholar in Solitude] (Prague and Litomyšl, 2012), 81–101.
50 Národní listy, 22 Sept. 1908 (morning), 1. On Šilhan, see Locke, Opera and Ideology in Prague, 51, 357, n.15.
51 Den, 22 Sept. 1908, 1–2.
52 De la Grange, Gustav Mahler, vol. 4. A New Life Cut Short, 227–30; Mitchell, Donald, “Mahler in Prague,” in The Mahler Companion, ed. Mitchell, Donald and Nicholson, Andrew, 400–06 (Oxford, 2002), at 401. The immensely thorough De la Grange, Gustav Mahler, vol. 4. A New Life Cut Short, 474, allows that Mahler “might have understood Czech” but is not certain.
53 William Ritter, quoted in De la Grange, Gustav Mahler, vol. 4. A New Life Cut Short, 228–29.
54 Bohemia, 20 Sept. 1908 (morning), 1–2; Prager Tagblatt, 20 Sept. 1908 (morning), 16. Edited, translated versions of these reviews can be found in “Mahler's German Language Critics,” ed. and trans. by Painter and Varwig, 317–24.
55 Prager Abendblatt, 21 Sept. 1908, 2.
56 Prager Tagblatt, 20 Sept. 1908 (morning), 16.
57 Two years later, Batka took up the question of Mahler's Jewishness again in “Das Jüdische bei Gustav Mahler,” Kunstwart 23, no. 20 (2 July 1910): 97–98. See Painter, Karen, “Jewish Identity and Anti-Semitic Critique in the Austro-German Reception of Mahler, 1900–1945,” in Perspectives on Gustav Mahler, ed. Barham, Jeremy, 175–94 (Aldershot, Hants, 2005).
58 On the Society of Patriotic Friends of Art in Bohemia and other Prague art galleries and museums, see Storck, Kulturnation und Nationalkunst, 234–49; Krueger, Rita A., Czech, German, and Noble: Status and National Identity in Habsburg Bohemia (New York, 2009), 128, 134–44; Vlnas, Vít, ed., Obrazárna v Čechách, 1796–1918: Katalog výstavy, uspořádané Národní galerií v Praze u příležitosti dvoustého výročí založení Obrazárny Společnosti vlasteneckých přátel umění v Čechách [The Painting Gallery in Bohemia, 1796–1918: The catalog of the exhibition, organized by the National Gallery in Prague on the occasion of the two hundredth anniversary of the founding of the Painting Gallery by the Society of Patriotic Friends of Art in Bohemia] (Prague 1996); Musil, Roman et al. , Moderní galerie tenkrát 1902–1942 [The Modern Gallery Then, 1902–1942] (Prague, 1992); and Suchomelová, Marcela, “Vojtěch Lanna a Společnost vlasteneckých přátel umění v Čechách” [Vojtĕch/Adalbert Lanna and the Society of Patriotic Friends of Art in Bohemia], in Vojtěch svobodný pan Lanna—Sběratel, mecenáš a podnikatel/Vojtěch Baron Lanna: Collector, Patron, Entrepreneur, ed. Matyášová, Eva, 28–33 (Prague, 1996).
59 See the assessment by Vít Vlnas, in Vlnas, ed., Obrázarna v Čechách, 95–101.
60 Hojda, Zdeněk, “Kdo nakupoval na výstavách Krasoumné jednoty” [Who Bought at the Exhibitions of the Fine Arts Society], in Město v české kultuře 19. století [The City in Czech Culture in the 19th Century], ed. Freimanová, Milena, 133–53 (Prague, 1983).
61 On Bohumil Bondy, see Kieval, The Making of Czech Jewry, 24, 49; and Rothkirchen, Livia, The Jews of Bohemia and Moravia: Facing the Holocaust (Lincoln, NE, 2006), 19.
62 On Adalbert Ritter von Lanna, see E. Matyášová, ed., Vojtěch svobodný pan Lanna, 6–33; Polívka, Eduard, “Vojtěch svobodný pán Lanna (1836–1909),” Numismatické listy, 192 s. 54, č 5/6 (1999): 138–48; and Hlavačka, Milan, “Vojtěch Lanna mladší (1836–1909),” Akademický bulletin (Prague) č. 9 (2010): 21–24.
63 Wittlich, Filip, “Uměleckoprůmyslové museum v Praze (1885–1995) [The Museum of Decorative Arts in Prague, 1885–1995],” in 110 let Uměleckoprůmyslové muzeum v Praze: více prostoru sbírkám [110 Years of the Museum of Decorative Arts in Prague: More Space for the Collections], ed. Karasová, Daniela, 7–8 (Prague, 1995).
64 See Vít Vlnas, “Moderní galerie jako nedokončená diskuse [The Modern Gallery as an Unfinished Discussion],” in Moderní galerie tenkrát 1902–1942, ed. Musil et al., 7–13, at 7–8. On the Koerber government's cultural initiatives, see Schorske, Carl E., Fin-de-Siècle Vienna: Politics and Culture (New York, 1980), 236–37. On the Koerber government more generally, see Lindström, Fredrik, “Ernest von Koerber and the Austrian State Idea: A Reinterpretation of the Koerber Plan (1900–1904),” Austrian History Yearbook 35 (2004): 143–84.
65 See Storck, Kulturnation und Nationalkunst, 247–48; Sayer, Coasts of Bohemia, 102–03; Vlnas, “Moderní galerie jako nedokončená diskuse,” 7–8; and Roman Prahl, “Die Moderne Galerie in Prag: Zur Geschichte ihrer Gründung,” Belvedere 1, no. 2 (1995): 84–97.
66 On the role of literary activity in the Czech national movement, see Agnew, Origins of the Czech National Renascence, passim; Bugge, “Czech Nation-Building,” passim; Macura, Vladimír, Znamení zrodu. České národní hnutí jako kulturní typ [Birth Signs: The Czech National Movement as a Cultural Type], expanded 2nd ed. (Jinočany, 1995), passim; idem, Český sen [The Czech Dream] (Prague, 1998), passim; and Sayer, Coasts of Bohemia, 82–153.
67 Sayer, Coasts of Bohemia, 82–153.
68 See Judson, Pieter M., “Nationalizing Rural Landscapes in Cisleithania, 1880–1914,” in Creating the Other: Ethnic Conflict and Nationalism in Habsburg Central Europe, ed. Wingfield, Nancy M., 127–48 (New York/Oxford, 2003), at 133–44; and idem, Guardians of the Nation: Activists on the Language Frontiers of Imperial Austria (Cambridge, MA, 2006), 34–42.
69 On the Czech and German universities in Prague in this period, see Havránek, Jan, “Vybudování české university a německé university v letech 1882–1918 [The Building of the Czech University and the German University, 1882–1918],” in Stručné dějiny university Karlovy [Concise History of the Charles University], ed. Kavka, František, 221–52 (Prague, 1964); and Dějiny Univerzity Karlovy [History of the Charles University], ed. Kavka, František and Petráň, Josef, 4 vols. (Prague, 1995–1998), vol. 3, 183–330.
70 See the discussion of Czech and German historiography in the Bohemian Lands in Kutnar, František and Marek, Jaroslav, Přehledné dějiny českého a slovenského dějepisectví od počátku národní kultury až do sklonku třicátých let 20. století [Outline History of Czech and Slovak Historiography from the Beginnings of the National Culture to the Close of the 1930s] (Prague, 1997), passim. On students crossing over between the Czech and German universities in Prague, see the examples cited in Frank, Philipp, Einstein: His Life and Times, trans. Rosen, George, ed./rev. Kusaka, Shuichi (New York, 1947), 81; and Vilém Mathesius, Paměti a jiné rukopisy [Memoirs and Other Manuscripts], ed. Hladky, Josef (Prague, 2009), 202, 210–13.
71 David-Fox, Katherine, “Prague-Vienna, Prague-Berlin: The Hidden Geography of Czech Modernism,” Slavic Review 5 (2000): 735–60; Sawicki, Nicholas, “The View from Prague,” in The Oxford Critical and Cultural History of Modernist Magazines, vol. 3 (Europe, 1880–1940), ed. Peter Brooker, Sascha Bru, Andrew Thacker, and Christian Weikop, 1074–98 (New York, 2013); Stewart, Neil, “The Wildes of Bohemia: The Cosmpolitan Voice of Moderní revue,” in Internationalism and the Arts in Britain and Europe at the Fin de Siècle, ed. Brockington, Grace, 135–55 (Oxford, 2009); and idem, “The Cosmopolitanism of Moderní revue (1894–1925),” in History of the Literary Cultures of East-Central Europe: Junctures and Disjunctures in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries, ed. Cornis-Pope, Marcel and Neubauer, John (London, 2007), vol. 3, 63–69. For broader treatments of Czech literary life around 1900, see Jiří Kudrnáč, “The Significance of Czech Fin-de-Siècle Criticism” and Pynsent, Robert B., “Conclusory Essay: Decadence, Decay, and Innovation,” in Decadence and Innovation: Austro-Hungarian Life and Art at the Turn of the Century, ed. Pynsent, Robert B., 88–101 and 111–248 (London, 1989).
72 On the writers and artists gathered around Moderní revue, see David-Fox, “Prague-Vienna, Prague-Berlin,” 750–58; Kudrnáč, “Significance of Czech Fin-de-Siècle Criticism,” 88–92; Pynsent, “Conclusory Essay: Decadence, Decay, and Innovation,” 111–215, passim; Sawicki, “The View from Prague,” 1076–79; and Stewart, “The Wildes of Bohemia,” 135–55.
73 See Stewart, “The Wildes of Bohemia,” 135–55; and idem, “The Cosmopolitanism of Moderní revue (1894–1925),” 63–69. Moderní revue published two Rilke poems in German in 1897 and one in Czech translation in 1898; see Sawicki, “The View from Prague,” 1077–78; and Schoolfield, George C., Rilke and His Time (Rochester, NY, 2009), 294.
74 See Sawicki, “The View from Prague,” 1082.
75 David-Fox, “Prague-Vienna, Prague-Berlin,” 757–58. On Czech modernist artists around 1900, see Petr Wittlich, “The Self: Destruction or Synthesis, Two Problems of Czech Art at the Turn of the Century,” in Decadence and Innovation, ed. Pynsent, 82–87; and Hlaváček, Luboš, “Malířství a grafika v Praze 1900–1945 [Painting and Graphic Art in Prague 1900–1945],” in Praha našeho věku: architektura, sochařství, malířství, užité umění [Prague in Our Era: Architecture, Sculpture, Painting, and Applied Art], ed. Poche, Emanuel, 233–71 (Prague, 1978). On the Mánes Society and Volné smĕry, see Sayer, Coasts of Bohemia, 103–4, 157–58; Bořecký, J., Gočarová, L., and Špale, V., Spolek výtvarných umělců Mánes 1887–2007 [The Society of Visual Artists Mánes, 1887–2007] (Prague, 2007), and Sawicki, “The View from Prague,” 1074–76, 1079–82. On the Rodin exhibition, see Sawicki, Nicholas, “Rodin and the Prague Exhibition of 1902: Promoting Modernism and Advancing Reputations,” Cantor Arts Center Journal 33 (2002–3): 185–97. Referring either to the 1907 Mánes exhibit of French impressionists or to the 1914 Mánes exhibit of French painters, the German Jewish writer and journalist Willy Haas remembered vividly a Prague exhibition of French late impressionists in his memoirs, Die Literarische Welt. Erinnerungen (Munich, 1958), 41–42.
76 On the Osma group, see Hlaváček, “Malířství a grafika v Praze 1900–1945,” 259–60; Nicholas Sawicki, “Becoming Modern: The Prague Eight and Modern Art, 1900–1910” (PhD diss., University of Pennsylvania, 2007); idem, “The Critic as Patron and Mediator: Max Brod, Modern Art and Jewish Identity in Early-20th-Century Prague,” Images: A Journal of Jewish Art and Visual Culture 6 (2012), in press; Sayer, Coasts of Bohemia, 157, 160; and idem, Prague, Capital of the Twentieth Century: A Surrealist History (Princeton and Oxford, 2013), 179–80.
77 On the Skupina artists and their activities, see Cohen, Milton A., Movement, Manifesto, Melee: The Modernist Group, 1910–1914 (Lanham, MD, 2004), 290–91; Hlaváček, “Malířství a grafika v Praze 1900–1945,” 260–66; and Sawicki, “The View from Prague,” 1082–86.
78 On cultural life in Prague in the 1920s, see Sayer, Prague, Capital of the Twentieth Century, passim; and Poche, ed., Praha našeho věku, 7–120, 208–28, 271–91.
79 Spector, Scott, Prague Territories: National Conflict and Cultural Innovation in Franz Kafka's Fin de Siècle (Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London, 2000), 17–19; Brod, Max, Der Prager Kreis (Stuttgart and Berlin, 1966), 35–37.
80 On Brod, see Brod, Max, Streitbares Leben 1884–1968, rev. ed. (Munich and Berlin, 1969); Pazi, Margarita, Max Brod. Werk und Persönlichkeit (Bonn, 1970); and Vassogne, Gaëlle, Max Brod in Prag: Identität und Vermittlung (Tübingen, 2009).
81 Spector, Prague Territories, 14–15; Ingeborg Schnack, “Rainer Maria Rilke—Kindheit und Jugend 1875–1900.” http://mitrilkedurchdasjahr.blogspot.com/2012/01/sonntagsthema-kindheit-und-jugend.html (accessed 18 Sept. 2013); and Demetz, Peter, René Rilkes Prager Jahre (Düsseldorf, 1953), 62–70.
82 See the nuanced analysis of the situation and common concerns of the German Jewish writers in Prague in Spector, Prague Territories, 36–92, 234–40.
83 Haas, Literarische Welt, 35.
84 On the mediating role, see Spector, Prague Territories, 195–217; Vassogne, Max Brod in Prag, 190–221; Josef Čermák, “La culture pragoise entre les nationalismes: le rôle des médiateurs,” in Allemands, Juifs et Tchèques à Prague—Deutsche, Juden und Tschechen in Prag, 1890–1924, ed. M. Godé, J. Le Rider, and F. Mayer, 397–404; Kieval, Hillel, “Choosing to Bridge: Revisiting the Phenomenon of Cultural Mediation,” Bohemia 46, no. 1 (2005): 15–27; and Šrámková, Barbora, Max Brod und die tschechische Kultur (Wuppertal, 2010).
85 Dierk O. Hoffmann, “Paul Leppin (27. Nov. 1878–10. April 1945). Biographie.” http://www.ssi-media.com/leppin/Bio.htm (accessed 20 Sept. 2013).
86 Max Brod, “Frühling in Prag,” Die Gegenwart (18 May 1907), 316–17; quoted and trans. in Nicholas Sawicki, “The Critic as Patron and Mediator: Max Brod,” 32–53; also quoted in part in Sayer, Prague, Capital of the Twentieth Century, 180, and Vassogne, Max Brod in Prag, 194.
87 See the insightful discussion of the correspondence in Spector, Prague Territories, 217–33; and Kafka's published letters in Kafka, Franz, Briefe an Milena, ed. Haas, Willy (Frankfurt, 1960); or in English, Letters to Milena, trans. Boehm, Philip (New York, 1990).
88 Langer, Byli a bylo, 167–68, 172–73. On Prague's literary and artistic cafés in the early twentieth century, see Jähn, Karl-Heinz, ed., Das Prager Kaffeehaus. Literarische Tischgesellschaften (Berlin, 1988); and Dörflová, Yvetta and Dyková, Věra, Kam se v Praze chodilo za múzami. Literární salony, kavárny, hospody a stolní společnosti [Where One Went in Prague for the Muses. Literary salons, coffee houses, pubs, and table gatherings] (Prague, 2009).
89 František Langer, “Der Rattenfänger und die Dirnen,” trans. Otto Pick, Die Fackel, 12, Heft 319 (31 March 1911): 55–61.
90 Die Fackel, 12, Heft 319 (31 March 1911): 64. On Kraus's first lectures in Prague, see Haas, Literarische Welt, 24–25; and Krolop, Kurt, Reflektionen der Fackel. Neue Studien über Karl Kraus (Vienna, 1994), 127–36.
91 Haas, Literarische Welt, 24–25; Josef Čermák, “Junge Jahre in Prag. Ein Beitrag zum Freundeskreis Franz Werfels,” in Brücken nach Prag, ed. Ehlers, Höhne, Maidl, and Nekula, 125–62, at 132–34; and idem., “Ze zákulisí prvních přednášek Karla Krause v Praze” [Behind the Scenes of Karl Kraus's First Lectures in Prague], in Karl Kraus: Jičínský rodák a světoobčan—in Jičín geboren, in der Welt zu Hause. Sborník referátů z mezinárodní konference konané ve dnech 21.–23. dubna 2004 v Jičíně [Karl Kraus: Jičín Native, Citizen of the World: Collection of Papers from the International Conference held 21–23 April 2004, in Jičín], ed. Naděžda Macurová (Semily, 2004), 262–73.
92 Bohemia, 4 Dec. 1910 (morning), 10.
93 Die Fackel, 12, Heft 313/314 (31 Dec. 1910): 56–60.
94 Krolop, Reflektionen der Fackel, 135.
95 Prager Tagblatt, 16 Mar. 1911, 5; Die Fackel, 12, Heft 319 (31 March 1911): 64–65. For the German text of the Heine essay with English translation, annotations, and commentary, see Franzen, Jonathan, The Kraus Project: Essays by Karl Kraus (New York, 2013), 3–134.
96 Národní listy, 16 Mar. 1911, 3.
97 Novina, 4, no. 10 (24 Mar. 1911): 320.
98 Ther, Národní divadlo v kontextu evropských operních dějin, 257–81.
99 Robert Frost, “Mending Wall” (1914), published in idem, North of Boston, repr. ed., 11–13 (Charleston, SC, 2008).
100 Koeltzsch, Geteilte Kulturen, 257–317, passim.
101 On the protests in Prague against German sound films, see Wingfield, Nancy M., Flag Wars and Stone Saints: How the Bohemian Lands became Czech (Cambridge, MA, and London, 2007), 199–230.
102 See Zahra, Kidnapped Souls, passim.
I gratefully acknowledge the invaluable assistance of Andrew Barker, David Beveridge, Wladimir Fischer-Nebmaier, Leo Lensing, Daniel Nečas, Karen Painter, Tomáš Pavliček, Nicholas Sawicki, Michal Svatoš, Hana Svatošová, Philipp Ther, and Jindřich Toman regarding sources, bibliography, and questions of translation. This lecture is dedicated to the memory of Robert A. Kann, who in the 1970s helped introduce me to research in and about Austria, and Jan Havránek, who helped me to appreciate the complexity of life in Prague around 1900.
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