Skip to main content

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
Cancel
×
Home
Article
    • Aa
    • Aa
  • Cited by 128
  • Cited by
    Crossref Citations
    Crossref logo
    This article has been cited by the following publications. This list is generated based on data provided by CrossRef.

    Cowan, Mary Louise Watkins, Christopher D. Fraccaro, Paul J. Feinberg, David R. and Little, Anthony C. 2016. It’s the way he tells them (and who is listening): men’s dominance is positively correlated with their preference for jokes told by dominant-sounding men. Evolution and Human Behavior, Vol. 37, Issue. 2, p. 97.

    da Cunha-Bang, Sofi Mc Mahon, Brenda MacDonald Fisher, Patrick Jensen, Peter Steen Svarer, Claus and Moos Knudsen, Gitte 2016. High trait aggression in men is associated with low 5-HT levels, as indexed by 5-HT4receptor binding. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, Vol. 11, Issue. 4, p. 548.

    Doll, Leslie M. Cárdenas, Rodrigo A. Burriss, Robert P. and Puts, David A. 2016. Sexual Selection and Life History: Earlier Recalled Puberty Predicts Men’s Phenotypic Masculinization. Adaptive Human Behavior and Physiology, Vol. 2, Issue. 2, p. 134.

    Durrant, Russil 2016. Putting risk factors in their place: an evolutionary-developmental approach to understanding risk. Psychology, Crime & Law, Vol. 22, Issue. 1-2, p. 17.

    Gerlsma, Coby and Lugtmeyer, Valerie 2016. Offense Type as Determinant of Revenge and Forgiveness After Victimization: Adolescents’ Responses to Injustice and Aggression. Journal of School Violence, p. 1.

    Giudice, Marco Del and Ellis, Bruce J. 2016. Developmental Psychopathology.

    Maner, J.K. and Case, C.R. 2016.

    Mogilski, Justin K. and Welling, Lisa L. M. 2016. Honest Signaling. Evolutionary Psychological Science,

    Nwakaego Sydney-Agbor, Ngozi 2016. Impact of Religiousity, Family Relations and Gender on Aggressive Behaviours among Undergraguates. International Journal of Social Science and Humanity, Vol. 6, Issue. 1, p. 42.

    Oldmeadow, Julian A. and Dixson, Barnaby J. 2016. The Association Between Men’s Sexist Attitudes and Facial Hair. Archives of Sexual Behavior, Vol. 45, Issue. 4, p. 891.

    Sherlock, James M. Tegg, Bridget Sulikowski, Danielle and Dixson, Barnaby J. W. 2016. Facial Masculinity and Beardedness Determine Men’s Explicit, but Not Their Implicit, Responses to Male Dominance. Adaptive Human Behavior and Physiology,

    Smith, Suzanne R. 2016. Encyclopedia of Family Studies.

    Thornton, Abigail J.V. Graham-Kevan, Nicola and Archer, John 2016. Intimate partner violence: Are the risk factors similar for men and women, and similar to other types of offending?. Aggressive Behavior, Vol. 42, Issue. 4, p. 404.

    Volk, Anthony A. Farrell, Ann H. Franklin, Prarthana Mularczyk, Kimberly P. and Provenzano, Daniel A. 2016. Evolutionary Perspectives on Child Development and Education.

    Baumgartner, Susanne E. Sumter, Sindy R. Peter, Jochen and Valkenburg, Patti M. 2015. Sexual self-presentation on social network sites: Who does it and how is it perceived?. Computers in Human Behavior, Vol. 50, p. 91.

    Boutwell, Brian B. Barnes, J.C. Beaver, Kevin M. Haynes, Raelynn Deaton Nedelec, Joseph L. and Gibson, Chris L. 2015. A unified crime theory: The evolutionary taxonomy. Aggression and Violent Behavior, Vol. 25, p. 343.

    Butovskaya, Marina Burkova, Valentina Karelin, Dmitry and Fink, Bernhard 2015. Digit ratio (2D:4D), aggression, and dominance in the Hadza and the Datoga of Tanzania. American Journal of Human Biology, Vol. 27, Issue. 5, p. 620.

    Campbell, Anne 2015. The Handbook of Evolutionary Psychology.

    Costa, Diogo Soares, Joaquim Lindert, Jutta Hatzidimitriadou, Eleni Sundin, Örjan Toth, Olga Ioannidi-Kapolo, Elli and Barros, Henrique 2015. Intimate partner violence: a study in men and women from six European countries. International Journal of Public Health, Vol. 60, Issue. 4, p. 467.

    Del Giudice, Marco 2015. International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences.

    Download full list
    ×
  • Get access
    Check if you have access via personal or institutional login
    Log in Register Recommend to librarian

Does sexual selection explain human sex differences in aggression?

  • John Archer (a1)
Abstract
Abstract

I argue that the magnitude and nature of sex differences in aggression, their development, causation, and variability, can be better explained by sexual selection than by the alternative biosocial version of social role theory. Thus, sex differences in physical aggression increase with the degree of risk, occur early in life, peak in young adulthood, and are likely to be mediated by greater male impulsiveness, and greater female fear of physical danger. Male variability in physical aggression is consistent with an alternative life history perspective, and context-dependent variability with responses to reproductive competition, although some variability follows the internal and external influences of social roles. Other sex differences, in variance in reproductive output, threat displays, size and strength, maturation rates, and mortality and conception rates, all indicate that male aggression is part of a sexually selected adaptive complex. Physical aggression between partners can be explained using different evolutionary principles, arising from the conflicts of interest between males and females entering a reproductive alliance, combined with variability following differences in societal gender roles. In this case, social roles are particularly important since they enable both the relatively equality in physical aggression between partners from Western nations, and the considerable cross-national variability, to be explained.

Copyright
COPYRIGHT: © Cambridge University Press 2009
Linked references
Hide All

This list contains references from the content that can be linked to their source. For a full set of references and notes please see the PDF or HTML where available.

W. E. Addison (1989) Beardedness as a factor in perceived masculinity. Perceptual and Motor Skills 68:921–22.
C. L. Apicella , D. R. Feinberg & F. W. Marlowe (2007) Voice pitch predicts reproductive success in male hunter gatherers. Biological Letters 3:682–84.
J. Archer (1996) Sex differences in social behavior: Are the social role and evolutionary explanations compatible? American Psychologist 51:909–17.
J. Archer (1999) Assessment of the reliability of the Conflict Tactics Scales: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Interpersonal Violence 14:1263–89.
J. Archer (2000a) Sex differences in aggression between heterosexual partners: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin 126:651–80.
J. Archer (2000b) Sex differences in partner aggression: A reply to Frieze (2000), O'Leary (2000) and White, Smith, Koss, and Figueredo (2000). Psychological Bulletin 126:697–702.
J. Archer (2002) Sex differences in physically aggressive acts between heterosexual partners: A meta-analytic review. Aggression and Violent Behavior: A Review Journal 7:313–51.
J. Archer (2004) Sex differences in aggression in real-world settings: A meta-analytic review. Review of General Psychology 8:291–322.
J. Archer (2006a) Cross-cultural differences in physical aggression between partners: A social-role analysis. Personality and Social Psychology Review 10:113–33.
J. Archer (2006b) Testosterone and human aggression: An evaluation of the challenge hypothesis. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 30:319–45.
J. Archer & M. Mehdikhani (2003) Variability among males in sexually-selected attributes. Review of General Psychology 7:219–36.
J. Archer & V. L. Thanzami (2007) The relation between physical aggression, size and strength, among a sample of young Indian men. Personality and Individual Differences 43:627–33.
R. H. Baillargeon , M. Zoccolillo , K. Keenan , S. Côté , D. Pérusse , H.-X. Wu , M. Boivin & R. E. Tremblay (2007) Gender differences in physical aggression: A prospective population-based survey of children before and after 2 years of age. Developmental Psychology 43(1):1326.
A. J. Bateman (1948) Intrasexual selection in Drosophila. Heredity 2:349–68.
M. C. Battié , S. J. Bigos , L. D. Fisher , T. H. Hansson , M. E. Jones & M. D. Wortley (1989) Isometric lifting strength as a predictor of industrial back pain reports. Spine 14:851–56.
D. V. Becker , D. T. Kenrick , S. L. Neuberg , K. C. Blackwell & D. M. Smith (2007) The confounded nature of angry men and happy women. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 92:179–190.
J. F. Benenson , H. P. Carder & S. J. Geib-Cole (2008) The development of boys' preferential pleasure in physical aggression. Aggressive Behavior 34:154–66.
B. A. Bettencourt & C. Kernahan (1997) A meta-analysis of aggression in the presence of violent cues: Effects of gender differences and aversive provocations. Aggressive Behavior 23:447–56.
B. A. Bettencourt & N. Miller (1996) Gender differences in aggression as a function of provocation: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin 119:422–47.
L. Betzig (1992) Roman polygyny. Ethology and Sociobiology 13:309–49.
D. J. Bjorklund & A. D. Pellegrini (2000) Child development and evolutionary psychology. Child Development 71:1687–708.
K. Björkqvist (1994) Sex differences in physical, verbal and indirect aggression: A review of recent research. Sex Roles 30:177–88.
K. Bussey & A. Bandura (1999) Social cognitive theory of gender development and differentiation. Psychological Review 106:676–713.
J. P. Byrnes , D. C. Miller & W. D. Schafer (1999) Gender differences in risk taking: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin 125:367–83.
A. Campbell (1995) A few good men: Evolutionary psychology and female adolescent aggression. Ethology and Sociobiology 16:99–123.
A. Campbell (1999) Staying alive: Evolution, culture and women's intra-sexual aggression. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 22:203–52.
A. Campbell (2006) Sex differences in direct aggression: What are the psychological mediators? Aggression and Violent Behavior 11:237–64.
A. Campbell , S. Muncer & B. Gorman (1993) Sex and social representations of aggression: A communal-agentic analysis. Aggressive Behavior 19:125–35.
A. Campbell , L. Shirley & L. Caygill (2002) Sex-typed preferences in three domains: Do two-year-olds need cognitive variables? British Journal of Psychology 93:203–17.
D. W. Campbell & W. O. Eaton (1999) Sex differences in the activity level of infants. Infant and Child Development 8:1–17.
J. M. Carré & C. M. McCormick (2008) In your face: Facial metrics predict aggressive behaviour in the laboratory and in varsity and professional hockey players. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B 275:2651–56. Available at:http://journals.royalsociety.org/content/h80173234257qq01/
T. H. Clutton-Brock & S. D. Albon (1979) The roaring red deer and the evolution of honest advertisement. Behaviour 69:145–70.
T. H. Clutton-Brock & P. H. Harvey (1977) Primate ecology and social organization. Journal of Zoology 183:1–39.
T. H. Clutton-Brock , P. H. Harvey & B. Rudder (1977) Sexual dimorphism, socioeconomic sex ratio and body weight in primates. Nature 269:797–800.
T. H. Clutton-Brock & G. A. Parker (1995) Sexual coercion in animal societies. Animal Behaviour 49:1345–65.
T. H. Clutton-Brock & A. C. J. Vincent (1991) Sexual selection and the potential reproductive rates of males and females. Nature 351:58–60.
M. Daly & M. Wilson (1990) Killing the competition: Female/female and male/male homicide. Human Nature 1:81–107.
C. Darwin (1871/1901) The descent of man, and selection in relation to sex. Murray. Available online at:http://www.infidels.org/library/historical/charles_darwin/descent_of_man/chapter_08.html.
N. B. Davies & T. M. Halliday (1978) Deep croaks and fighting assessment in toads Bufo bufo. Nature 274:683–85.
N. B. Davies & A. Lundberg (1984) Food distribution and a variable mating system in the dunnock, Prunella modularis. Journal of Animal Ecology 53:895–912.
R. Dawkins & T. R. Carlisle (1976) Parental investment, mate desertion and a fallacy. Nature 262:131–33.
G. Destro-Bisol , F. Donati , V. Coia , I. Boschi , F. Verginelli , A. Caglia , S. Tofanelli , G. Spedini & C. Capelli (2004) Variation in female and male lineages in sub-Saharan populations: The importance of sociocultural factors. Molecular Biology and Evolution 21:1673–82.
R. P. Dobash , R. E. Dobash , M. Wilson & M. Daly (1992) The myth of sexual symmetry in marital violence. Social Problems 39:71–91.
A. H. Eagly (1997) Sex differences in social behavior: Comparing social role theory and evolutionary psychology. American Psychologist 52(12):1380–83.
A. H. Eagly & V. J. Steffen (1984) Gender stereotypes stem from the distribution of women and men into social roles. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 46:735–54.
A. H. Eagly & V. J. Steffen (1986) Gender and aggressive behavior: A meta-analytic review of the social psychological literature. Psychological Bulletin 100(3):309–30.
A. H. Eagly & W. Wood (1999) The origins of sex differences in human behavior: Evolved dispositions versus social rules. American Psychologist 54:408–23.
W. O. Eaton & L. R. Enns (1986) Sex differences in human motor activity level. Psychological Bulletin 100:19–28.
M. Eisner (2003) Long-term historical trends in violent crime. Crime and Justice: A Review of Research 30:83–142.
S. T. Emlen & L. W. Oring (1977) Ecology, sexual selection and the evolution of mating systems. Science 197:215–23.
S. Evans , N. Neave & D. Wakelin (2006) Relationship between vocal characteristics and body size and shape in human males: An evolutionary explanation for a deep male voice. Biological Psychiatry 72:160–63.
C. Evers , A. H. Fischer , P. M. Rodriguez Mosquera & A. S. R. Manstead (2005) Anger and social appriaisal: A “spicy” sex difference. Emotion 5:258–66.
R. B. Felson (1996) Big people hit little people: Sex differences in physical power and interpersonal violence. Criminology 34:433–52.
R. B. Felson (2002) Violence and gender reexamined. American Psychological Association.
M. S. Fiebert & D. M. Gonzalez (1997) College women who initiate assaults on their male partners and the reasons offered for such behavior. Psychological Reports 80:583–90.
A. J. Figueredo , V. Corral-Verdugo , M. Frias-Armenta , K. J. Bachar , J. White , P. L. McNeill , B. R. Kirsner & I. del Pilar Castell-Ruiz (2001) Blood, solidarity, status, and honor: The sexual balance of power and spousal abuse in Sonora, Mexico. Evolution and Human Behavior 22:295–328.
A. J. L. Forsberg & B. S. Tullberg (1995) The relationship between cumulative number of cohabiting partners and number of children for men and women in modern Sweden. Ethology and Sociobiology 16:221–32.
A. Fuentes (1999) Re-evaluating primate monogamy. American Anthropology 100:890–907.
S. W. Gangestad , M. G. Haselton & D. M. Buss (2006a) Evolutionary foundations of cultural variation: Evoked culture and mate preferences. Psychological Inquiry 17:75–95.
S. W. Gangestad , M. G. Haselton & D. M. Buss (2006b) Toward an integrative understanding of evolved and transmitted culture: The importance of specialized psychological design. Psychological Inquiry 17:138–51.
D. C. Geary (2000) Evolution and proximate expression of human paternal investment. Psychological Bulletin 126:55–77.
D. C. Geary (2002) Sexual selection and human life history. Advances in Child Development and Behavior 30:41–101.
D. C. Geary , J. Byrd-Craven , M. K. Hoard , J. Vigil & C. Numtee (2003) Evolution and development of boys' social behavior. Developmental Review 23:444–70.
M. Gergen (1990) Beyond the evil empire: Horseplay and aggression. Aggressive Behavior 16:381–98.
K. A. Gleason , L. A. Jensen-Campbell & D. S. Richardson (2004) Agreeableness as a predictor of aggression in adolescence. Aggressive Behavior 30:43–61.
J. P. Gray & L. D. Wolfe (1980) Height and sexual dimorphism of stature among human societies. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 53:441–56.
M. R. Gross (1996) Alternative reproductive strategies and tactics: Diversity within sexes. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 11:92–98.
M. B. Harris (1992) Sex and ethnic differences in past aggressive behaviors. Journal of Family Violence 7:85–102.
D. F. Hay , J. Castle & L. Davies (2000) Toddlers' use of force against familiar peers: A precursor of serious aggression? Child Development 71:457–67.
E. J. Hermans , P. Putman , J. M. Baas , H. P. Koppeschaar & J. van Honk (2006a) A single administration of testosterone reduces fear potentiated startle in humans. Biological Psychiatry 59:872–74.
E. J. Hermans , P. Putman & J. van Honk (2006b) Testosterone administration reduces empathic behavior: A facial mimicry study. Psychoneuroendocrinology 31:859–66.
N. H. Hess & E. H. Hagen (2006) Sex differences in indirect aggression: Psychological evidence from young adults. Evolution and Human Behavior 27:231–45.
Z. Hilton , G. T. Harris & M. E. Rice (2000) The functions of aggression by male teenagers. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 79:988–94.
M. Hiraiwa-Hasegawa (2005) Homicide by men in Japan, and its relationship to age, resources and risk taking. Evolution and Human Behavior 26:332–43.
D. Hosken & R. Snook (2005) How important is sexual conflict? American Naturalist 165:S1–4.
V. M. Hudson & A. Den Boer (2002) A surplus of men, a deficit of peace: Security and sex ratio in Asia's largest states. International Security 26:5–38.
J. S. Hyde (1984) How large are gender differences in aggression? A developmental meta-analysis. Developmental Psychology 20:722–36.
D. A. Jenni (1974) Evolution of polyandry in birds. American Zoologist 14:129–44.
K. Keenan & D. Shaw (1997) Developmental and social influences on young girls' early problem behavior. Psychological Bulletin 121:95–113.
L. A. Kirkpatrick & S. Epstein (1992) Cognitive-experiential self-theory and subjective probability: Further evidence for two conceptual systems. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 63:534–44.
B. M. Knauft (1991) Violence and sociality in human evolution. Current Anthropology 32:391–428.
G. P. Knight , R. A. Fabes & D. A. Higgins (1996) Concerns about drawing causal inferences from meta-analyses: An example in the study of gender differences in aggression. Psychological Bulletin 119:410–21.
G. P. Knight , I. K. Guthrie , M. C. Page & R. A. Fabes (2002) Emotional arousal and gender differences in aggression: A meta-analysis. Aggressive Behavior 28:366–93.
D. J. Kruger & R. M. Nesse (2006) An evolutionary life-history framework for understanding sex differences in human mortality. Human Nature 17:74–97.
U. G. Kyle , L. Genton , H. C. Lukaski , Y. M. Dupertuis , D. O. Slosman , D. Hans & C. Pichard (2005) Comparison of fat-free mass and body fat in Swiss and American adults. Nutrition 21:161–69.
S. D. Levitt (2004) Understanding why crime fell in the 1990s: Four factors that explain the decline and six that do not. Journal of Economic Perspectives 18:163–90.
P. Lindenfors , J. L. Gittleman & K. E. Jones (2007) Sexual size dimorphism in mammals. In: Sex, size, and gender roles: Evolutionary studies of sexual size dimorphism, ed. D. J. Fairbairn , W. U. Blanckenhorn & T. Székely , pp. 16–26. Oxford University Press.
B. S. Low (1990) Marriage systems and pathogen stress in humans. American Zoologist 30:325–39.
E. E. Maccoby (1988) Gender as a social category. Developmental Psychology 24:755–65.
J. N. Mager , C. Walcott & W. H. Piper (2007) Male common loons, Gavia immer, communicate body mass and condition through dominant frequencies of territorial yodels. Animal Behaviour 73:683–90.
F. Marlowe (2004) Marital residence among foragers. Current Anthropology 45:277–88.
A. G. McElligott , K. P. O'Neill & T. J. Hayden (1999) Cumulative long-term investment in vocalization and mating success of fallow bucks, Dama dama. Animal Behaviour 57:1159–67.
H. M. McHenry & K. Coffing (2000) Australopithecus to Homo: Transformations in body and mind. Annual Review of Anthropology 29:125–46.
M. N. Muller , S. M. Kahlenberg , M. E. Thompson & R. W. Wrangham (2007) Male coercion and the costs of promiscuous mating for female chimpanzees. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B 274:1009–24.
F. Muscarella & M. R. Cunningham (1996) The evolutionary significance and social perception of male pattern baldness and facial hair. Ethology and Sociobiology 17:99–117.
G. A. Parker (1974a) Assessment strategy and the evolution of fighting behavior. Journal of Theoretical Biology 47:223–43.
V. Pasterski , P. Hindmarsh , M. Geffner , C. Brook , S. Brain & M. Hines (2007) Increased aggression and activity level in 3- to 11-year-old girls with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH). Hormones and Behavior 52:368–74.
B. Pawlowski , R. Atwal & R. I. M. Dunbar (2008) Sex differences in everyday risk-taking behavior in humans. Evolutionary Psychology 6:29–42.
A. D. Pellegrini (2004) Sexual segregation in childhood: A review of evidence for two hypotheses. Animal Behaviour 68:435–43.
D. G. Perry , L. C. Perry & R. J. Weiss (1989) Sex differences in the consequences that children anticipate for aggression. Developmental Psychology 25:312–19.
S. T. Pheasant (1983) Sex differences in strength – some observations on their variability. Applied Ergonomics 14:205–11.
J. M. Plavcan (2000) Inferring social behavior from sexual dimorphism in the fossil record. Journal of Human Evolution 39:327–44.
J. M. Plavcan & C. P.. van Schaik (1997a) Interpreting hominid behavior on the basis of sexual dimorphism. Journal of Human Evolution 32:345–74.
J. M. Plavcan & C. P. van Schaik (1997b) Intrasexual competition and body weight dimorphism in anthropoid primates. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 103:37–68.
P. Putman , E. J. Hermans & J. van Honk (2004) Emotional Stroop performance for masked angry faces: It's BAS, not BIS. Emotion 4:305–11.
D. A. Puts , S. J. C. Gaulin & K. Verdolini (2006) Dominance and the evolution of sexual dimorphism in human voice pitch. Evolution and Human Behavior 27:283–96.
A. Raine , P. Brennan & D. P. Farrington (1997) Biosocial bases of violence: Conceptual and theoretical issues. In: Biosocial bases of violence, ed. A. Raine , P. Brennan , D. P. Farrington & A. A. Mednick , pp. 1–20. Plenum Press.
K. Ralls (1976) Mammals in which females are larger than the males. Quarterly Review of Biology 51:245–76.
D. R. Richardson & L. R. Green (1999) Social sanction and threat explanations of gender effects on direct and indirect aggression. Aggressive Behavior 25:425–34.
A. Rutter & D. W. Hine (2005) Sex differences in workplace aggression: An investigation of moderation and mediation effects. Aggressive Behavior 31:254–70.
I. Schuster (1983) Women's aggression: An African case study. Aggressive Behavior 9:319–31.
A. Sell , L. Cosmides , J. Tooby , D. Sznycer , C. von Rueden & M. Gurven (2009) Human adaptations for the visual assessment of strength and fighting ability from the body and face. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B 276:575–84.
J. P. Sharpe & S. Desai (2001) The revised neo personality inventory and the MMPI-2 psychopathology five in the prediction of aggression. Personality and Individual Differences 31:505–18.
B. B. Smuts (1992) Male aggression against women: An evolutionary perspective. Human Nature 3:1–44.
B. B. Smuts (1995) The evolutionary origins of patriarchy. Human Nature 6:1–32.
M. A. Straus (1979) Measuring intrafamily conflict and violence: The Conflict Tactics (CT) Scales. Journal of Marriage and the Family 41:75–88.
M. A. Straus (1999) The controversy over domestic violence by women: A methodological, theoretical, and sociology of science analysis. In: Violence in intimate relationships, ed. X.B. Arriaga & S. Oskamp , pp. 17–44. Sage.
J. T. Tedeschi & R. B. Felson (1994) Violence, aggression, and coercive actions. American Psychological Association.
V. L. Thanzami & J. Archer (2005) Beliefs about aggression in British students from individualistic and collectivist cultures. Aggressive Behavior 31:350–58.
T. Tieger (1980) On the biological basis of sex differences. Child Development 51:943–63.
R. E. Tremblay , B. Schaal , B. Boulerice , L. Arseneault , R. G. Soussignan , D. Paquette & D. Laurent (1998) Testosterone, physical aggression, dominance, and physical development in early adolescence. International Journal of Behavioral Development 22:753–57.
J. M. Twenge (1997a) Attitudes toward women, 1970–1995. Psychology of Women Quarterly 21:35–51.
J. M. Twenge (1997b) Changes in masculine and feminine traits over time: A meta-analysis. Sex Roles 36:305–25.
J. M. Twenge (2001) Changes in women's assertiveness in response to status and roles: A cross-temporal meta-analysis, 1931–1993. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 81:133–45.
J. van Honk , A. Tuiten , E. J. Hermans , P. Putman , H. P. Koppeschaar , J. Thijssen , R. Verbaten & L. van Doornen (2001) A single administration of testosterone induces cardiac acceleration response to angry faces in healthy young women. Psychoneuroendocrinology 29:937–43.
M. van Vugt , D. De Cremer & D. Janssen (2007) Gender differences in cooperation and competition: The male warrior hypothesis. Psychological Science 18:19–23.
L. E. Walker (1989) Psychology and violence against women. American Psychologist 44:659–702.
E. M. Weston , A. E. Friday , R. A. Johnstone & F. Schrenk (2004) Wide faces or large canines? The attractive versus the aggressive primate? Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B (Suppl.) 271(S):416–19.
E. M. Weston , A. E. Friday & P. Lio (2007) Biometric evidence that sexual selection has shaped the hominid face. PLoS ONE 2 (8):e710. Available online: doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0000710).
M. Wilson & M. Daly (2006) Are juvenile offenders extreme discounters? Psychological Science 17:989–94.
M. L. Wilson & R. W. Wrangham (2003) Intergroup relations in chimpanzees. Annual Review of Anthropology 32:263–92.
L. D. Wolfe & J. P. Gray (1982) Latitude and intersocietal variation of human sexual dimorphism of stature. Human Ecology 10:409–15.
W. Wood & A. H. Eagly (2002) A cross-cultural analysis of the behavior of women and men: Implications for the origins of sex differences. Psychological Bulletin 128:699–727.
R. W. Wrangham , M. L. Wilson & M. N. Muller (2006) Comparative rates of violence in chimpanzees and humans. Primates 47:14–26.
G. Xiao , L. Lei , P. G. Dempsey , B. Lu & Y. Liang (2005) Isometric muscle strength and anthropometric characteristics of a Chinese sample. International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics 35:674–79.
M. Zuckerman & D. M. Kuhlman (2000) Personality and risk-taking: Common biosocial factors. Journal of Personality 68:999–1029.
M. Zuckerman , D. M. Kuhlman , J. Joireman , P. Teta & M. Kraft (1993) A comparison of three structural models for personality: The big three, the big five, and the alternative five. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 65:757–68.
Recommend this journal

Email your librarian or administrator to recommend adding this journal to your organisation's collection.

Behavioral and Brain Sciences
  • ISSN: 0140-525X
  • EISSN: 1469-1825
  • URL: /core/journals/behavioral-and-brain-sciences
Please enter your name
Please enter a valid email address
Who would you like to send this to? *

CAPTCHA *

Skip to the audio challenge
×

Keywords:

Cancel
Confirm
×