Hostname: page-component-8448b6f56d-cfpbc Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-16T10:49:39.369Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Causal factors of equine stereotypy

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  27 February 2018

S D McBride  and
A Hemmings
S D McBride
Affiliation:
Institute of Rural Studies, University of Wales, Aberystwyth, SY23 3AL, UK
A Hemmings
Affiliation:
Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester, Gloucestershire, GL7 6JS, UK
Get access

Abstract

The commonality in neural mechanism (transmitter and brain region) underpinning stereotypy and that associated with motivation of goaldirected behaviours lends support to the idea that the former is derived from the latter. Hughes and Duncan postulated this theory behaviourally within their proposed 1988 model of motivation. This review re–interprets the Hughes and Duncan model to neurochemically describe the motivational development of stereotypic behaviour in the horse.

Type
Research Article
Information
BSAP Occasional Publication , Volume 32: Emerging Equine Science , 2004 , pp. 35 - 65
Copyright
Copyright © British Society of Animal Production 2004

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Abercrombie, E. D., Keefe, K. A., Difrischia, D. S. and Zigmond, M. J. (1989). Differential effect of stress on invivo dopamine release in striatum, nucleus accumbens, and medial frontal–cortex. Journal of Neurochemistry 52: 1655–1658.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Adell, A., Garciamarquez, C., Armario, A. and Gelpi, E. (1988). Chronic stress increases serotonin and noradrenaline in ratbrain and sensitizes their responses to a further acute stress. Journal of Neurochemistry 50: 1678–1681.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Aggrey, S. E., Kroetzl, H. and Foelsch, D. W. (1990). Behavior of laying hens during induced molting in 3 different production systems. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 25: 97–105.Google Scholar
Anisman, H. and Zacharko, R. M. (1990). Multiple neurochemical and behavioral consequences of stressors – implications for depression. Pharmacology and Therapeutics 46: 119–136.Google Scholar
Antelman, S. M. and Szechtman, H. (1975). Tail pinch induces eating in sated rats which appear to depend on nigrostriatal dopamine. Science 189: 731–733.Google ScholarPubMed
Appleby, M. C. and Lawrence, A. B. (1987). Food restriction as a cause of stereotypic behavior in tethered gilts. Animal Production 45: 103–110.Google Scholar
Axe, J. W. (1901). Crib–biting and Wind–sucking. The Veterinary Record 14: 365–369.Google Scholar
Bachmann, I., Audige, L. and Stauffacher, M. (2003). Risk factors associated with behavioural disorders of crib–biting, weaving and box–walking in Swiss horses. Equine Veterinary Journal 35: 158–163.Google Scholar
Bakshi, V. P. and Kelley, A. E. (1994). Sensitization and conditioning of feeding following multiple morphine microinjections into the nucleus–accumbens. Brain Research 648: 342–346.Google Scholar
Bellisle, F. (1989). Quantifying palatability in humans. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 575: 363–375.Google Scholar
Berridge, K. C. (1996). Food reward – brain substrates of wanting and liking. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 20: 1–25.Google Scholar
Berridge, K. C. and Robinson, T. E. (1998). What is the role of dopamine in reward: hedonic impact, reward learning, or incentive salience? Brain Research Reviews 28: 309–369.Google ScholarPubMed
Bildsoe, M., Heller, K. E. and Jeppesen, L. L. (1991). Effects of immobility stress and food restriction on stereotypies in low and high stereotyping female ranch mink. Behavioural Processes 25: 179–189.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blackburn, J. R., Phillips, A. G., Jakubovic, A. and Fibiger, H. C. (1989). Dopamine and Preparatory Behavior .2. A Neurochemical Analysis. Behavioral Neuroscience 103: 15–23.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brouckaert, K., Steenhaut, M., Martens, A., Vlaminck, L., Pille, F., Arnaerts, L. and Gasthuys, F. (2002). Windsucking in the horse: results after surgical treatment – A retrospective study (1990-2000). Vlaams Diergeneeskundig Tijdschrift 71: 249–255.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brown, S. A., Crowelldavis, S., Malcolm, T. and Edwards, P. (1987). Naloxone–responsive compulsive tail chasing in a dog. Journal of The American Veterinary Medical Association 190: 884–886.Google Scholar
Cabib, S. and Bonaventura, N. (1997). Parallel strain–dependent susceptibility to environmentally– induced stereotypies and stressinduced behavioral sensitization in mice. Physiology and Behavior 61: 499–506.Google Scholar
Cabib, S., Puglisi–Allegra, S. and Oliverio, A. (1984). Chronic stress enhances apomorphine–induced stereotyped behavior in mice – involvement of endogenous opioids. Brain Research 298: 138–140.Google Scholar
Cabib, S., Oliverio, A. and Puglisi–Allegra, S. (1989). Stress–induced decrease of 3–methoxytyramine in the nucleus accumbens of the mouse is prevented by naltrexone pretreatment. Life Sciences 45: 1031–1037.Google Scholar
Cabib, S., Ventura, R. and Puglisi–Allegra, S. (2002). Opposite imbalances between mesocortical and mesoaccumbens dopamine responses to stress by the same genotype depending on living conditions. Behavioural Brain Research 129: 179–185.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cabib, S., Giardino, L., Calza, L., Zanni, M., Mele, A. and Puglisi–Allegra, S. (1998). Stress promotes major changes in dopamine receptor densities within the mesoaccumbens and nigrostriatal systems. Neuroscience 84: 193–200.Google Scholar
Campbell, B. A. and Fibiger, H. C. (1997). Potentiation of amphetamine–induced arousal by starvation. Nature 233: 424–425.Google Scholar
Carr, K. D. and Wolinsky, T. D. (1993). Chronic food restriction and weight–loss produce opioid facilitation of perifornical hypothalamic self–stimulation. Brain Research 607: 141–148.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chen, J. (1993). Dopaminergic mechanisms and brain reward. Seminars in the Neurosciences 5: 315–320.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cooper, J. J. and Nicol, C. J. (1991). Stereotypic behavior affects environmental preference in bank voles, clethrionomys–glareolus. Animal Behaviour 41: 971–977.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cooper, J. J., McDonald, L. and Mills, D. S. (2000). The effect of increasing visual horizons on stereotypic weaving: implications for the social housing of stabled horses. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 69: 67–83.Google Scholar
Cooper, S. J. and Dourish, C. J. (1990). An introduction to the concept of stereotypy and a historical perspective on the role of brain dopamine. In: Neurobiology of Stereotyped Behaviour, Edited by Cooper, S. J. and Dourish, C. T., Clarendon Press, Oxford, UK, pp. 1–24.Google Scholar
Cronin, G. M., Wiepkema, P. R. and Vanree, J. M. (1986). Endorphins implicated in stereotypies of tethered sows. Experientia 42: 198–199.Google Scholar
Curzon, G. (1990). Stereotyped and other motor responses to 5–hydroxytryptamine receptor activation. In: Neurobiology of Stereotyped Behaviour, Edited by Cooper, S. J. and Dourish, C. T., Clarendon Press, Oxford, UK, pp. 142–165 Google Scholar
Dantzer, R. (1986). Behavioral, physiological and functional–aspects of stereotyped behavior – a review and a re–interpretation. Journal of Animal Science 62: 1776–1786.Google Scholar
Dantzer, R. and Mormede, P. (1983). Stress in farm–animals – a need for reevaluation. Journal of Animal Science 57: 6–18.Google Scholar
Dichiara, G. and Imperato, A. (1988). Opposite effects of mu–opiate and kappa–opiate agonists on dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens and in the dorsal caudate of freely moving rats. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics 244: 1067–1080.Google Scholar
Dodman, N. H., Shuster, L., Court, M. H. and Dixon, R. (1987). Investigation into the use of narcotic–antagonists in the treatment of a stereotypic behavior pattern (crib–biting) in the horse. American Journal of Veterinary Research 48: 311–319.Google Scholar
Duncan, I. J. H. and Wood–Gush, D. G. M. (1972). Thwarting of feeding behaviour in the domestic fowl. Animal Behaviour 20: 444–451.Google Scholar
Dunn, A. J. (1988a). Changes in plasma and brain tryptophan and brain serotonin and 5– hydroxyindoleacetic acid after footshock stress. Life Sciences 42: 1847–1853.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dunn, A. J. (1988b). Stress–related changes in cerebral catecholamine and indoleamine metabolism – lack of effect of adrenalectomy and corticosterone. Journal of Neurochemistry 51: 406–412.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dunn, A. J. and File, S. E. (1983). Cold restraint alters dopamine metabolism in frontal–cortex, nucleus accumbens and neostriatum. Physiology and Behavior 31: 511–513.Google Scholar
Fjeldborg, J. (1993). Results of surgical–treatment of cribbing by neurectomy and myectomy. Equine Practice 15: 34–36.Google Scholar
Fox, M. W. (1965). Environmental factors influencing stereotyped and allelomimetic behaviour in animals. Laboratory Animal Care 15: 363–370.Google Scholar
Fraser, A. F. and Broom, D. M. (1990). Abnormal Behaviour 1: Stereotypies. In: Farm Animal Behaviour and Welfare, Bailliere Tindall, UK, pp. 305–317.Google Scholar
Frauenfelder, H. (1981). Treatment of crib–biting – a surgical approach in the standing horse. Equine Veterinary Journal 13: 62–63.Google Scholar
Friedberger, F. and Frohner, E. (1905). Veterinary Pathology Volume 2; Non–infective Diseases of Animals, London, UK.Google Scholar
Friederich, M. W., Friederich, D. P. and Walker, J. M. (1987). Effects of dynorphin (1-8) on movement – non–opiate effects and structure–activity relationship. Peptides 8: 837–840.Google Scholar
Friend, T. H. (1991). Behavioral–aspects of stress. Journal of Dairy Science 74: 292–303.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Frohner, E. (1896). Apomorphine. In: Lehrbuch der Arzneimittellehre, Stuttgart, Germany, pp. 181.Google Scholar
Garris, P. A. and Rebec, G. V. (2002). Modeling fast dopamine neurotransmission in the nucleus accumbens during behavior. Behavioural Brain Research 137: 47–63.Google Scholar
Gillham, S. B., Dodman, N. H., Shuster, L., Kream, R. and Rand, W. (1994). The effect of diet on cribbing behavior and plasma beta–endorphin in horses. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 41: 147–153.Google Scholar
Goubaux, A. and Barrier, G. (1892). The Exterior of the Horse, London, UK.Google Scholar
Hansen, C. P. B. (1993). Stereotypies in ranch mink – the effect of genes, litter size and neighbors. Behavioural Processes 29: 165–178.Google Scholar
Hansen, S. W. and Damgaard, B. M. (1993). Behavioral and adrenocortical coping strategies and the effect on eosinophil leukocyte level and heterophil lymphocyte–ratio in beech marten (martes–foina). Applied Animal Behaviour Science 35: 369–388.Google Scholar
Hawkins, M. F., Baumeister, A. A., Larue, R. H., Fountain, L. T., Highsmith, R. W., Jeffries, S. K. and Duke, M. A. (1999). Central GABA activation and behaviors evoked by tail–pinch stress in the rat. Physiology and Behavior 67: 705–709.Google Scholar
Hiroi, N. and White, N. M. (1989). Conditioned Stereotypy – Behavioral Specification of the Ucs and Pharmacological Investigation of the Neural Change. Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior 32: 249–258.Google Scholar
Hoffman, D. C., West, T. E. G. and Wise, R. A. (1991). Ventral pallidal microinjections of receptor–selective opioid agonists produce differential–effects on circling and locomotor–activity in rats. Brain Research 550: 205–212.Google Scholar
Holmes, G. (1839). On Crib–biting. Abstract of the Proceedings of the Veterinary Medical Association 167–180.Google Scholar
Hosoda, T. (1950). On the heritability of susceptability to wind–sucking in horses. Japanese Journal of Zootechnology Science 21: 25.Google Scholar
Houpt, K. A. (1981). Equine behavior problems in relation to humane management. International Journal for the Study of Animal Problems 2 (6): 329–337.Google Scholar
Houpt, K. A. (1986). Stable vices and trailer problems. Veterinary Clinics of North America–Equine Practice 2: 623–644.Google Scholar
Houpt, K. A. and McDonnell, S. M. (1993). Equine stereotypies. Compendium on continuing education for the practicing veterinarian 15: 1265–1272.Google Scholar
Hubrecht, R. C., Serpell, J. A. and Poole, T. B. (1992). Correlates of pen size and housing conditions on the behavior of kenneled dogs. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 34: 365–383.Google Scholar
Hughes, B. O. and Duncan, I. J. H. (1988). The notion of ethological need, models of motivation and animal–welfare. Animal Behaviour 36: 1696–1707.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Inoue, T., Tsuchiya, K. and Koyama, T. (1994). Regional changes in dopamine and serotonin activation with various intensity of physical and psychological stress in the rat–brain. Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior 49: 911–920.Google Scholar
Johnson, K. G., Tyrrell, J., Rowe, J. B. and Pethick, D. W. (1998). Behavioural changes in stabled horses given nontherapeutic levels of virginiamycin. Equine Veterinary Journal 30: 139–143.Google Scholar
Johnson, R. W., , Vonborell, E. H., Anderson, L. L., Kojic, L. D. and Cunnick, J. E. (1994). Intracerebroventricular injection of corticotropin–releasing hormone in the pig – acute effects on behavior, adrenocorticotropin secretion, and immune suppression. Endocrinology 135: 642–648.Google Scholar
Jones, G. H., Hernandez, T. D., Kendall, D. A., Marsden, C. A. and Robbins, T. W. (1992). Dopaminergic and serotonergic function following isolation rearing in rats – study of behavioral–responses and postmortem and invivo neurochemistry. Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior 43: 17–35.Google Scholar
Kanarek, R. B., Mathes, W. F., Heisler, L. K., Lima, R. P. and Monfared, L. S. (1997). Prior exposure to palatable solutions enhances the effects of naltrexone on food intake in rats. Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior 57: 377–381.Google Scholar
Kawahara, H., Yoshida, M., Yokoo, H., Nishi, M. and Tanaka, M. (1993). Psychological stress increases serotonin release in the rat amygdala and prefrontal cortex assessed by in–vivo microdialysis. Neuroscience Letters 162: 81–84.Google Scholar
Kennes, D., Odberg, F. O., Bouquet, Y. and De Rycke, P. H. (1988). Changes in naloxone and haloperidol effects during the development of captivity–induced jumping stereotypy in bank voles. European Journal of Pharmacology 153: 19–24.Google Scholar
Kennett, G. A., Dickinson, S. L. and Curzon, G. (1985). Enhancement of some 5–ht–dependent behavioral–responses following repeated immobilization in rats. Brain Research 330: 253–263.Google Scholar
Kiley–Worthington, M. (1983). Stereotypes in horses. Equine Practice 5 (): 34–40.Google Scholar
Kiyatkin, E. A. and Gratton, A. (1994). Electrochemical Monitoring of Extracellular Dopamine in Nucleus–Accumbens of Rats Lever–Pressing for Food. Brain Research 652: 225–234.Google Scholar
Kostal, L. and Savory, C. J. (1994). Influence of pharmacological manipulation of dopamine and opioid receptor subtypes on stereotyped behavior of restricted–fed fowls. Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior 48: 241–252.Google Scholar
Kostal, L., Savory, C. J. and Hughes, B. O. (1992). Diurnal and individual variation in behaviour of restricted fed broiler breeders. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 32: 361–374.Google Scholar
Kusunose, R. (1992). Diurnal pattern of cribbing in stabled horses. Japanese Journal of Equine Science 3 (2): 173–176.Google Scholar
Ladewig, J., de Passille, A. M. B., Rushen, J., Terlouw, E. M. C. and von Borell, E. (1993). Stress and the physiological correlates of stereotypic behaviour. In: Stereotypic Animal Behaviour: fundamentals and applications to welfare, Edited by Lawrence, A. B. and Rushen, J., CAB International, Wallingford, UK, pp. 97–118.Google Scholar
Lawrence, A. B. and Terlouw, E. M. C. (1993). A review of behavioralfactors involved in the development and continued performance of stereotypic behaviors in pigs. Journal of Animal Science 71: 2815–2825.Google Scholar
Leyton, M. and Stewart, J. (1996). Acute and repeated activation of male sexual–behavior by tail pinch – opioid and dopaminergic mechanisms. Physiology and Behavior 60: 77–85.Google Scholar
Longoni, R., Spina, L., Mulas, A., Carboni, E., Garau, L., Melchiorri, P. and Dichiara, G. (1991). (d–ala2)deltorphin–ii – d1–dependent stereotypies and stimulation of dopamine release in the nucleusaccumbens. Journal of Neuroscience 11: 1565–1576.Google Scholar
Luescher, U. A., Mckeown, D. B. and Halip, J. (1991). Reviewing the causes of obsessive–compulsive disorders in horses. Veterinary Medicine 86: 527–530.Google Scholar
Majeed, N. H., Przewlocka, B., Wedzony, K. and Przewlocki, R. (1986). Stimulation of food–intake following opioid microinjection into the nucleus accumbens septi in rats. Peptides 7: 711–716.Google Scholar
Mama, K. R., Pascoe, P. J. and Steffey, E. P. (1992). Evaluation of the interaction of mu and kappa–opioid agonists on locomotor behavior in the horse. Canadian Journal of Veterinary Research 57: 106–109.Google Scholar
Martel, P. and Fantino, M. (1996). Mesolimbic dopaminergic system activity as a function of food reward – a microdialysis study. Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior 53: 221–226.Google Scholar
Mason, G. and Mendl, M. (1997). Do the stereotypies of pigs, chickens and mink reflect adaptive species differences in the control of foraging? Applied Animal Behaviour Science 53: 45–58.Google Scholar
Mason, G. J. (1991). Stereotypies– a critical review. Animal Behaviour 41: 1015–1037.Google Scholar
Mason, G. J. (1993). Age and context affect the stereotypies of caged mink. Behaviour 127: 191–229.Google Scholar
Mason, G. J. and Mendl, M. T. (1993). Why is there no easy way of measuring animal welfare? Animal Welfare 2: 301–319.Google Scholar
Matsumoto, R. R., Brinsfield, K. H., Patrick, R. L. and Walker, J. M. (1988). Rotational behavior mediated by dopaminergic and nondopaminergic mechanisms after intranigral microinjection of specific mu–opioid, delta–opioid and kappa–opioid agonists. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics 246: 196–203.Google Scholar
McAfee, L. M., Mills, D. S. and Cooper, J. J. (2002). The use of mirrors for the control of stereotypic weaving behaviour in the stabled horse. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 78: 159–173.Google Scholar
McBride, S. D. and Long, L. (2001). The perception and subsequent management of equine stereotypic behaviour by horse owners; implications for animal welfare. The Veterinary Record 148: 799–802.Google Scholar
McBride, S. D. and Cuddeford, D. (2001). The putative welfarereducing effects of preventing equine stereotypic behaviour. Animal Welfare 10: 173–189.Google Scholar
McBride, S. D. and Hemmings, A. (2001). Striatum D1 dopamine receptors are significantly higher in horses perfroming stereotypic behaviour. Research in Veterinary Science. 70: 12.Google Scholar
McGreevy, P. D., French, N. P. and Nicol, C. J. (1995a). The prevalence of abnormal behaviors in dressage, eventing and endurance horses in relation to stabling. The Veterinary Record 137: 36–37.Google Scholar
McGreevy, P. D., Richardson, J. D., Nicol, C. J. and Lane, J. G. (1995b). Radiographic and endoscopic study of horses performing an oral based stereotypy. Equine Veterinary Journal 27: 92–95.Google Scholar
McGreevy, P. D., Cripps, P. J., French, N. P., Green, L. E. and Nicol, C. J. (1995c). Management factors associated with stereotypic and redirected behaviour in the thoroughbred horse. Equine Veterinary Journal 27: 86–91.Google Scholar
Meyer, M. E. and Mclaurin, B. I. (1995). Intraaccumbens delta(1)– opioid agonist, pcl–dpdpe, differentially affects patterns of locomotor–activity. Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior 51: 359–362.Google Scholar
Mills, D. S. and Macleod, C. A. (2002). The response of crib–biting and windsucking in horses to dietary supplementation with an antacid mixture. Ippologia 13: 33–41.Google Scholar
Mitchell, J. B. and Stewart, J. (1990). Facilitation of sexual behaviors in the male–rat in the presence of stimuli previously paired with systemic injections of morphine. Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior 35: 367–372.Google Scholar
Moore, J. (1912). Crib–biting and Wind–sucking. The Veterinary Record 24: 806–814.Google Scholar
Morelli, M., Fenu, S. and Dichiara, G. (1989). Substantia nigra as a site of origin of dopamine–dependent motor syndromes induced by stimulation of mu–opioid and delta–opioid receptors. Brain Research 487: 120–130.Google Scholar
Mucha, R. F. and Iversen, S. D. (1986). Increased food–intake after opioid microinjections into nucleus accumbens and ventral tegmental area of rat. Brain Research 397: 214–224.Google Scholar
Nicol, C. J., Davidson, H. P. D., Harris, P. A., Waters, A. J. and Wilson, A. D. (2002). Study of crib–biting and gastric inflammation and ulceration in young horses. The Veterinary Record 151: 658-+.Google Scholar
Nolte, J. (2001). Organization of the brainstem. In: The Human Brain; an introduction to its functional anatomy. Edited by Nolte, J., Mosby, St Louis, USA, pp. 254–282.Google Scholar
Nurnberg, H. G., Keith, S. J. and Paxton, D. M. (1997). Consideration of the relevance of ethological animal models for human repetitive behavioral spectrum disorders. Biological Psychiatry 41: 226–229.Google Scholar
Odberg, F. O. (1986). The Jumping Stereotypy in the Bank Vole (Clethrionomys– Glareolus). Biology of Behaviour 11: 130–143.Google Scholar
Ossenkopp, K. P., Parker, L. A. and Spector, A. C. (1995). Behavioral, neural, and pharmacological aspects of palatability: An introduction to the symposium. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 19: 87–88.Google Scholar
Phillips, A. G., Pfaus, J. G. and Blaha, C. D. (1991). Dopamine and motivated behavior: Insights provided by in vivo analyses. In: The mesolimbic dopmine system: from motivation to action. Edited by Willner, P. J. and Scheel–Kruger, J., Wiley, Chichester, UK, pp. 199–224.Google Scholar
Piazza, P. V. and Le Moal, M. (1998). The role of stress in drug selfadministration. Trends In Pharmacological Sciences 19: 67–74.Google Scholar
Potter, G. D. (1980). Behavioral problems. Equine Veterinary Data 194–195.Google Scholar
Prince, D. (1987). Stable Vices. In: Behaviour problems in horses, Edited by McBane, S., David & Charles, Newton Abbot, UK, pp. 115–122.Google Scholar
Puglisi–Allegra, S., Kempf, E. and Cabib, S. (1990). Role of genotype in the adaptation of the brain dopamine system to stress. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 14: 523–528.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ralston, S. L. (1982). Common behavioral problems of horses. Compendium on continuing education for the practicing veterinarian 4: S152–S159.Google Scholar
Redbo, I. (1993). Stereotypies and cortisol secretion in heifers subjected to tethering. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 38: 213–225.Google Scholar
Redbo, I. and Nordblad, A. (1997). Stereotypies in heifers are affected by feeding regime. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 53: 193–202.Google Scholar
Redbo, I., Emanuelson, M., Lundberg, K. and Oredsson, N. (1996). Feeding level and oral stereotypies in dairy–cows. Animal Science 62: 199–206.Google Scholar
Redbo, I., Redbo–Torstensson, P., Odberg, F. O., Hedendahl, A. and Holm, J. (1998). Factors affecting behavioural disturbances in race–horses. Animal Science 66: 475–481.Google Scholar
Reid, M. S., Ho, L. B., Tolliver, B. K., Wolkowitz, O. M. and Berger, S. P. (1998). Partial reversal of stress–induced behavioral sensitization to amphetamine following metyrapone treatment. Brain Research 783: 133–142.Google Scholar
Robbins, T. W. and Everitt, B. J. (1996). Neurobehavioral mechanisms of reward and motivation. Current Opinion In Neurobiology 6: 228–236.Google Scholar
Robbins, T. W., Jones, G. H. and Wilkinson, L. S. (1996). Behavioral and neurochemical effects of early social deprivation in the rat. Journal of Psychopharmacology 10: 39–47.Google Scholar
Robbins, T. W., Mittleman, G., OBrien, J. and Winn, P. (1990). The neuropsychological significance of stereotypy induced by stimulant drugs. In: Neurobiology of stereotyped behaviour, Edited by Cooper, S. J. and Dourish, C. T., Clarendon Press, Oxford, UK, pp. 25–63.Google Scholar
Robert, S., Rushen, J. and Farmer, C. (1997). Both energy content and bulk of food affect stereotypic behaviour, heart rate and feeding motivation of female pigs. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 54: 161–171.Google Scholar
Rushen, J. (1984). Stereotyped behavior, adjunctive drinking and the feeding periods of tethered sows. Animal Behaviour 32: 1059–1067.Google Scholar
Rushen, J., Depassille, A. M. B. and Schouten, W. (1990). Stereotypic behavior, endogenous opioids, and postfeeding hypoalgesia in pigs. Physiology and Behavior 48: 91–96.Google Scholar
Rushen, J., Lawrence, A. B. and Terlouw, E. M. C. (1993). The motivational basis of stereotypies. In: Stereotypic animal behaviour: fundamentals and applications to welfare, Edited by Lawrence, A. B. and Rushen, J., CAB International, Wallingford, UK, pp. 41–64.Google Scholar
Sambraus, H. H. (1981). Abnormal–behavior as an indication of immaterial suffering. International Journal for the Study of Animal Problems 2: 245–248.Google Scholar
Sambraus, H. H. (1985). Mouth–Based Anomalous Syndromes. In: Ethology of farm animals, Edited by Fraser, A. F., Elsevier, The Netherlands, pp. 391–422.Google Scholar
Sambraus, H. H. (1996). Stereotypies. In: Ethology of farm animals, Edited by Fraser, A. F., Elsevier, The Netherlands, pp. 431–441.Google Scholar
Sambraus, H. H. and Radtke, K. (1989). Study with respect to the weaving of horses. Deutsche Tierartliche Wochenschrift 96: 248–255.Google Scholar
Savory, C. J., Seawright, E. and Watson, A. (1992). Stereotyped behavior in broiler breeders in relation to husbandry and opioid receptor blockade. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 32: 349–360.Google Scholar
Schilder, M. B. H. (1986). Vices in stabled horses with special reference to crib biting. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 15: 89–90.Google Scholar
Schoenecker, B. and Heller, K. E. (2000). Indication of a genetic basis of stereotypies in laboratory–bred bank voles (Clethrionomys glareolus). Applied Animal Behaviour Science 68: 339–347.Google Scholar
Schultz, W. (1986). Responses of Midbrain Dopamine Neurons to Behavioral Trigger Stimuli in the Monkey. Journal of Neurophysiology 56: 1439–1461.Google Scholar
Schwaibold, U. and Pillay, N. (2001). Stereotypic behaviour is genetically transmitted in the African striped mouse Rhabdomys pumilio. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 74: 273–280.Google Scholar
Selye, S. (1973). The evolution of the stress concept. American Scientist 61: 692–699.Google Scholar
Spanagel, R., Herz, A. and Shippenberg, T. S. (1990). The effects of opioid–peptides on dopamine release in the nucleus– accumbens – an invivo microdialysis study. Journal of Neurochemistry 55: 1734–1740.Google Scholar
Spanagel, R., Herz, A., Balskubik, R. and Shippenberg, T. S. (1991). Beta–endorphin–induced locomotor stimulation and reinforcement are associated with an increase in dopamine release in the nucleus– accumbens. Psychopharmacology 104: 51–56.Google Scholar
Stein, E. A., Hiller, J. M. and Simon, E. J. (1992). Effects of stress on opioid receptor–binding in the rat central–nervous–system. Neuroscience 51: 683–690.Google Scholar
Terlouw, E. M. C., Lawrence, A. B. and Illius, A. W. (1991). Influences of feeding level and physical restriction on development of stereotypies in sows. Animal Behaviour 42: 981–991.Google Scholar
Terlouw, E. M. C., Wiersma, A., Lawrence, A. B. and Macleod, H. A. (1993). Ingestion of food facilitates the performance of stereotypies in sows. Animal Behaviour 46: 939–950.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Terlouw, E. M. C., Derosa, G., Lawrence, A. B., Illius, A. W. and Ladewig, J. (1992). Behavioral–responses to amphetamine and apomorphine in pigs. Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior 43: 329–340.Google Scholar
Tidey, J. W. and Miczek, K. A. (1996). Social defeat stress selectively alters mesocorticolimbic dopamine release – an in–vivo microdialysis study. Brain Research 721: 140–149.Google Scholar
Tsujii, S., Nakai, Y., Koh, T., Takahashi, H., Usui, T., Ikeda, H., Matsuo, T. and Imura, H. (1986). Effect of food–deprivation on opioid receptor–binding in the brain of lean and fatty zucker rats. Brain Research 399: 200–203.Google Scholar
Vecchiotti, G. G. and Galanti, R. (1986). Evidence of heredity of cribbing, weaving and stall–walking in Thoroughbred horses. Livestock Production Science 14: 91–95.Google Scholar
von Borell, E. and Hurnik, J. F. (1991). The effect of haloperidol on the performance of stereotyped behavior in sows. Life Sciences 49: 309–314.Google Scholar
Waring, G. H. (1983). Horse Behavior, Noyes Publications, Park Ridge.Google Scholar
Waters, A. J., Nicol, C. J. and French, N. P. (2002). Factors influencing the development of stereotypic and redirected behaviours in young horses: findings of a four year prospective epidemiological study. Equine Veterinary Journal 34: 572–579.Google Scholar
Wiepkema, P. R. and Koolhaas, J. M. (1993). Stress and animal welfare. Animal Welfare 2: 195–218.Google Scholar
Wightman, R. M. and Robinson, D. L. (2002). Transient changes in mesolimbic dopamine and their association with ‘reward’. Journal of Neurochemistry 82: 721–735.Google Scholar
Willemse, T., Mudde, M., Josephy, M. and Spruijt, B. M. (1994). The effect of haloperidol and naloxone on excessive grooming behavior of cats. European Neuropsychopharmacology 4: 39–45.Google Scholar
Wise, R. A. and Rompre, P. P. (1989). Brain Dopamine and Reward. Annual Review of Psychology 40: 191–225.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wolinsky, T. D., Carr, K. D., Hiller, J. M. and Simon, E. J. (1994). Effects of chronic food restriction on mu–opioid and kappaopioid binding in rat forebrain – a quantitative autoradiographic study. Brain Research 656: 274–280.Google Scholar
Yare, T. R. (1830). On the Vicious habits and Propensities of Horses. The Sporting Magazine 1 (2nd edition): 208–218.Google Scholar
Yeghiayan, S. K. and Kelley, A. E. (1995). Serotonergic stimulation of the ventrolateral striatum induces orofacial stereotypy. Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior 52: 493–501.Google Scholar
Yurtman, I. Y., Savas, T., Karaagac, F. and Coskuntuna, L. (2002). Effects of daily protein intake levels on the oral stereotypic behaviours in energy restricted lambs. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 77: 77–88.Google Scholar
Zeman, P., Alexandrova, M. and Kvetnansky, R. (1988). Opiod–mu and opiod–delta and dopamine receptor number changes in rat striatum during stress. Endocrinologia Experimentalis 22: 59–66.Google Scholar