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We appreciate the financial support of the Batten Institute, the Darden School, University of Virginia, in developing these ideas. We also thank BEQ Associate Editor Norm Bowie and the three anonymous BEQ reviewers for their helpful comments and suggestions, as well as Shawn Berman, Ming-Jer Chen, Rob Phillips, Dave Whetten, and faculty in the Department of Business at Washington State University, Vancouver, who provided important feedback on earlier drafts of this paper.

1. Edward Freeman, R., Strategic Management: A Stakeholder Approach (Boston: Pitman, 1984);Thomas, Donaldson and Lee, E. Preston, “The Stakeholder Theory of the Corporation: Concepts, Evidence, and Implications,” Academy of Management Review 20 (1995): 65–91;Thomas, M. Jones, “Instrumental Stakeholder Theory: A Synthesis of Ethics and Economics,” Academy of Management Review 20 (1995): 92–117;Thomas, M. Jones, Andrew, C. Wicks, and Edward Freeman, R., “Stakeholder Theory: The State of the Art,” in Blackwell Guide to Business Ethics, ed. Norman, E. Bowie (Malden, Mass.: Blackwell, 2002), 19–37;Lynn, S. Paine, Value Shift (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2003);Sandra, A. Waddock, Leading Corporate Citizens: Vision, Values, Value Added (Boston: McGraw-Hill, 2002);Sandra, Waddock, Charles, Bodwell, and Samuel, B. Graves, “Responsibility: The New Business Imperative,” Academy of Management Executive 16(2) (May 2002): 132–18;Sandra, Waddock and Charles, Bodwell, “Managing Responsibility: What Can Be Learned from the Quality Movement,” California Management Review 47(1) (Fall 2004): 25–36.

2. Jorg, Andrioff, Sandra, Waddock, Bryan, Husted, and Sandra, Sutherland Rahman, eds., Unfolding Stakeholder Thinking, vol. 1 (Sheffield, UK: Greenleaf Publishing, 2002);Jorg, Andrioff, Sandra, Waddock, Bryan, Husted, and Sandra, Sutherland Rahman, eds., Unfolding Stakeholder Thinking, vol. 2 (Sheffield, UK: Greenleaf Publishing, 2003).

3. Norman, Bowie, “New Directions in Corporate Social Responsibility,” Business Horizons (July-August 1991): 56–65.

4. Ibid., 63.

5. Gretchen, E. Hund, Jill, A. Engel-Cox, Kimberly, Fowler, and Howard, Klee, “Two-Way Responsibility: The Role of Industry and its Stakeholders in Working towards Sustainable Development,” 217–31;Anne, T. Lawrence, “The Drivers of Stakeholder Engagement: Reflections on the Case of Royal Dutch/Shell,” 185–200;Dennis, A. Rondelli and Ted, London, “Stakeholder and Corporate Responsibilities in Cross-Sectoral Environmental Collaborations: Building Value, Legitimacy, and Trust,” 201–17, all in Unfolding Stakeholder Thinking, vol. 1, ed. Andrioff et al.; Bruce, W. Clemens and Scott, R. Gallagher, “Stakeholders for Environmental Strategies: The Case of the Emerging Industry in Radioactive Scrap Metal Treatment,” in Unfolding Stakeholder Thinking, vol. 2, ed. Andrioff et al., 128–44.

6. Waddock and Bodwell, “Managing Responsibility.”

7. Bowie, “New Directions.”

8. Duff, R. A., Concise Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy (London: Routledge, 1997);Patricia, H. Werhane and Edward Freeman, R., eds., Encyclopedic Dictionary of Business Ethics (Malden, Mass: Blackwell Publishers, 1997), 557–58; Waddock and Bodwell, “Managing Responsibility.”

9. Robert, A. Phillips, “Stakeholder Theory and a Principle of Fairness,” Business Ethics Quarterly 7(1) (1997): 51–66, 57.

10. John, Rawls. Justice as Fairness: A Restatement, ed. Erin, Kelly (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2001), 211.

11. Hans, Jonas, The Imperative of Responsibility (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984), 8–9. We thank one of the BEQ reviewers for alerting us to the relevance of the work of Jonas.

12. Waddock, Leading Corporate Citizens; Andrew, C. Wicks, Daniel, R. Gilbert Jr., and Edward Freeman, R., “A Feminist Reinterpretation of the Stakeholder Concept,” Business Ethics Quarterly 4(4) (1994): 475–97.

13. Margaret, Urban Walker, Moral Understandings (New York: Routledge, 1998).

14. Waddock and Bodwell, “Managing Responsibility.”

15. Robert, E. Goodin, Protecting the Vulnerable (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985).

16. Freeman, Strategic Management.

17. Jonas, The Imperative of Responsibility (see especially pp. 79–130); Duane, Windsor, “Stakeholder Responsibilities: Lessons for Managers,” in Unfolding Stakeholder Thinking, vol. 1, ed. Andrioff et al., 137–54.

18. Goodin, Protecting the Vulnerable; Waddock, Leading Corporate Citizens.

19. Jeff, Frooman, “Stakeholder Influence Strategies,” Academy of Management Review 24(2) (1999): 191–205.

20. David, Callahan, The Cheating Culture (Orlando: Harcourt, Inc., 2004), 180.

21. Jerald, Greenberg, “Employee Theft as a Reaction to Underpayment Inequity: The Hidden Cost of Pay Cuts,” Journal of Applied Psychology 75(5) (1990): 561–68.

22. Waddock, Leading Corporate Citizens.

23. Philip, Selznick, The Moral Commonwealth (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992).

24. Walker, Moral Understandings, 94.

25. Sherron, S. Watkins, “Ethical Conflicts at Enron: Moral Responsibility in Corporate Capitalism,” California Management Review 45(4) (Summer 2003): 6–19.

26. Ibid.

27. Ibid.

28. Albert, O. Hirschman, Exit, Voice, and Loyalty (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1970).

29. Nicole, Tempest, Meg Whitman at eBay Inc. (A) (Boston: Harvard Business School Publishing, 1999).

30. Ibid.

31. Susanne, G. Scott and Vicki, R. Lane, “A Stakeholder Approach to Organizational Identity,” Academy of Management Review 25(1) (2000): 43–62.

32. Ranjay, Gulati, Sarah, Huffman, and Gary, Nelson, “The Barista Principle: Starbucks and the Rise of Relational Capital,” strategy + business (3rd quarter 2002): 1–12.

33. Howard, Schultz and Dori, Jones Yang, Pour Your Heart Into It (New York: Hyperion, 1997), 11, 138.

34. Elliot, J. Schrage, “Promoting International Worker Rights Through Private Voluntary Initiatives: Public Relations or Public Policy?” Report to U.S. Department of State on behalf of The University of Iowa Center for Human Rights, January 2004.

35. http://www.starbucks.com/aboutus/FY05_CSR_Products.pdf.

36. Jody, H. Gittell, The Southwest Airlines Way (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2003).

37. Ibid., 119.

38. We thank the BEQ reviewer who brought this practice of Southwest Airlines to our attention.

39. Jim, Collins, Good to Great (New York: HarperCollins, Inc., 2001).

40. Norman, E. Bowie, “Digital Rights and Wrongs: Intellectual Property in the Information Age,” Visiting Professorship in Business Ethics and Information Technology, Center for Business Ethics, Bentley College, March 29, 2004.

41. John, Micklethwait and Adrian, Woolridge, The Company (New York: Modern Library, 2003.)

42. Waddock, Leading Corporate Citizens.

43. Information and data on the HP and Home Depot collaboration were provided by Tyler Elm, Director of Environmental Affairs for Home Depot during discussions held in October and November 2004.

44. http://www.rethink.ebay.com.

45. http://www.fairlabor.org/2005report/special projects/index/html.

46. Paul, A. Argenti, “Collaborating with Activists: How Starbucks Works with NGO's,” California Management Review 47(1) (Fall 2004): 91–116.

47. Ibid.

48. Bowie, “New Directions”; Patricia, H. Werhane, Persons, Rights, and Corporations (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1985.)

49. Guatam, Ahuja, “Collaborative Networks, Structural Holes, and Innovation: A Longitudinal Study,” Administrative Science Quarterly 45(3) (2000): 425–56;Steve, Farkas, Ann, Duffet, Jean, Johnson, and Beth, Syat, “A Few Bad Apples: An Exploratory Look at What Typical Americans Think About Business Ethics Today,” Report for The Kettering Foundation from Public Agenda, (January 2004);Janine, Nahapiet and Sumatra, Ghoshal, “Social Capital, Intellectual Capital, and Organizational Advantage,” Academy of Management Review 23(2) (1998): 242–66;Timothy, J. Rowley, “Managing Beyond Network Ties: A Network Theory of Stakeholder Influences,” Academy of Management Review 22(4) (1997): 887–910.

50. Mark, A. Huselid, “The Impact of Human Resource Practices on Turnover, Productivity, and Corporate Financial Performance,” Academy of Management Journal 38(3) (1995): 635–72;Jeffrey, Pfeffer, The Human Equation (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1998).

51. Andrew, C. Wicks, “The Value Dynamics of Total Quality Management: Ethics and the Foundation of TQM,” Business Ethics Quarterly 11(3) (2001): 501–36.

52. Edward, W. Davis and Robert, E. Spekman, The Extended Enterprise:Gaining Competitive Advantage Through Collaborative Supply Chains (Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Financial Times Prentice Hall, 2004).

53. Two recent journal special issues were devoted to the topic of trust. See Academy of Management Review 20(3) (1998); and Organization Science 14(1) (2003). On employee empowerment see Wicks, “Value Dynamics.”

54. Argenti, “Collaborating with Activists,” 36.

55. Waddock, Leading Corporate Citizens.

56. Jill, Treanor, “Citigroup Chief Preaches Ethics in the Counting House,” The Guardian Unlimited (February 17, 2005).

57. Ibid.

58. Ibid.

59. Bowie, “Digital Rights and Wrongs.”

60. Waddock, Bodell, and Graves, “Responsibility”; Waddock and Bodell, “Managing Responsibility.”

61. Richard Scott, W., Institutions and Organizations (2nd edition) (Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage Publications, 2000).