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Copyrighting the Kaiser: Publicity, Piracy, and the Right to Wilhelm II's Image

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  19 September 2012

Eva Giloi
Eva Giloi*
Affiliation:
Rutgers University, Newark
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Extract

In 1900, the Encyclopedia Britannica requested an original, previously unpublished portrait from Kaiser Wilhelm II for its forthcoming edition. The German emperor denied the request, instead advising the British publishers to find an existing photograph on the open market. A few years later, when a Berlin-based association for hunting dogs needed a cover shot for its journal, the Kaiser gladly sat for the picture. From a twenty-first-century perspective, Wilhelm's choice seems a bizarre case of misplaced priorities: the Kaiser took care to position himself among the hounds, but left his encyclopedia image in the hands of foreign publishers. Was this gaffe an example of what Wilhelm II's grandson, Louis Ferdinand, later criticized as the Kaiser's “deficient” sense of public relations, his feeling that “the imperial family stands high above the need to worry about publicity”? In England, mused the royal heir, “publicity is taken much more seriously”—after all, as early as the 1860s, Queen Victoria had courted public support by publishing her family portraits and private diaries.

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Articles
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Central European History , Volume 45 , Issue 3 , September 2012 , pp. 407 - 451
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Copyright © Conference Group for Central European History of the American Historical Association 2012

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References

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19 The empire had no central office responsible for distributing royal portraits until the Bild- und Film-Amt was founded during World War I. Pohl, “Der Kaiser im Zeitalter,” 16.

20 GStA-PK, I HA Rep. 89 Nr. 2792, Otto Dambach to Wilhelm II, May 4, 1889, Blatt 72a–73d. See also the entry Teichmann, A., “Dambach, Otto Wilhelm Rudolf,” in Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, vol. 47 (Leipzig: Duncker & Humblot, 1903), 615Google Scholar.

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22 Special thanks go to Stefanie Kandzia and Ralf Michaels for their bibliographic suggestions on this topic. See the chapter “Entwicklungsschritte des Geistigen Eigentums in Frankreich und Deutschland,” in Wadle, Geistiges Eigentum, vol. 2, 83–98 in general, and in particular in relation to property rights, vol. 2, 87–88.

23 Johns, Piracy, 54–56.

24 This was also Fichte's argument; see Woodmansee, “Genius,” 444–446.

25 For the nuanced differences between Persönlichkeitsrecht, Immaterialgüterrecht, and geistiges Eigentum, see Klippel, “Die Idee des geistigen Eigentums”; Barbara Dölemeyer, “‘Das Urheberrecht ist ein Weltrecht.’ Rechtsvergleichung und Immaterialgüterrecht bei Josef Kohler”; and Martin Vogel, “Urheberpersönlichkeitsrecht und Verlagsrecht im letzten Drittel des 19. Jahrhunderts”; all in Historische Studien, ed. Wadle, 121–138, 139–150, and 191–206, respectively. See also Bappert, Wege. The problem with the concept of Persönlichkeitsrecht was that it was nontransferable. With the death of the “person,” the Persönlichkeitsrecht of copyright also logically expired, making copyright conceptually nontransferable as an inheritance to heirs or estates. In the late nineteenth century, the influential legal scholar Josef Kohler sought to correct the illogic of the law by formulating the concept of Immaterialgüterrecht, which stood alongside Persönlichkeitsrecht as a “double right” forming the basis for copyright. Schoenebeck, Moderne Kunst, 67.

26 For debates leading to the 1876 law, see the chapter “Photographie und Urheberrecht im 19. Jahrhundert. Die deutsche Entwicklung bis 1876,” in Wadle, Geistiges Eigentum, vol. 1, 343–366. Also Plumpe, Der tote Blick, 53–95.

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30 GStA-PK, I HA Rep. 89 Nr. 2319, Gossler to Friedrich III, March 21, 1888, Blatt 180.

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33 In the draft letter, Wilhelm II explicitly crossed out Dambach's suggested “sowie geeigneten Falls auch anderen darum nachsuchenden Personen” and gave Dambach only “vorläufig” permission to deal with one such request. GStA-PK, I HA Rep. 89 Nr. 2792, correspondence Dambach, Minister des Königlichen Hauses, and Wilhelm II, May 4 and 8, 1889, Blatt 72a–73e.

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39 GStA-PK, I HA Rep. 89 Nr. 2792, correspondence Gustav Hornung and Lucanus, January 15 and 19, 1892, Blatt 100–101; correspondence Weygand and Lucanus, January 29 and February 9, 1899, Blatt 97g, 97i. GStA-PK, I HA Rep. 89 Nr. 2323, correspondence Rienaecker, Lucanus, and Bülow, September 22 and November 5, 1902, Blatt 47–48. GStA-PK, I HA Rep. 77 Tit. 96 Nr. 22, correspondence Ludwig Janowski and Valentini, March 7 and 28, 1893, unpaginated.

40 Schaarwächter set the price at twenty to twenty-five pfennigs. GStA-PK, I HA Rep. 89 Nr. 2792, Bismarck to Lucanus, November 19, 1896, Blatt 97b-97c. For Louis XIV's iconography, see GStA-PK, I HA Rep. 89 Nr. 2325, Vermerk 1911, Blatt 35; Vermerk 1912, Blatt 90.

41 “Gesetz, betreffend das Urheberrecht an Werken der bildenden Kunst und der Photographie,” January 9, 1907, published in Reichs-Gesetzblatt 3 (1907): 7–18. Also reprinted in Röthlisberger, Ernst, Urheberrechts-Gesetze und -Verträge in allen Ländern nebst den Bestimmungen über das Verlagsrecht (Leipzig: G. Hedeler, 1914), 82–89Google Scholar.

42 Kohler, Das Eigenbild, 10–13. For a list of laws that could be directed against subversive images, see May, Deutsch sein, 71.

43 Weise, Bernd, “Pressefotografie V. Probleme zwischen Fotografen und Redaktionen und der Beginn der Bildtelegrafie in Deutschland bis 1914,” Fotogeschichte 16, no. 59 (1996): 33–50, here 37Google Scholar.

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53 GStA-PK, I HA Rep. 89 Nr. 2792, correspondence Noell & Lorenz and Valentini, December 31, 1910, and January 5, 1911, Blatt 159a-159c; see also Valentini to Karl Sigismund, September 17, 1912, Blatt 159g.

54 GStA-PK, I HA Rep. 89 Nr. 2324, correspondence Valentini to Freifrau von Liliencron, March 8, 11, and 14, 1911, Blatt 11-14; Valentini to the Minister der Geistlichen Angelegenheiten Bad Hauburg, April 18, 1913, Blatt 159o; C. Hey to Valentini and marginalia, August 29 and September 5, 1914, Blatt 163a.

55 This rule was generalized in a memorandum in 1912. See GStA-PK, I HA Rep. 89 Nr. 2325, Vermerk 1912, Blatt 93. See also GStA-PK, I HA Rep. 89 Nr. 2792, Valentini to Karl Sigismund, September 17, 1912, Blatt 159g.

56 GStA-PK, I HA Rep. 89 Nr. 2792, Eulenburg to Valentini, December 9, 1911, Blatt 159e; Vermerk February 21, 1913, Blatt 159k; Valentini to Eulenburg, February 24, 1913, Blatt 159l.

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66 The situation was similar in Great Britain. See Plunkett, Queen Victoria, 186–194.

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69 For specific examples, see the essays by Roland Scotti, “Denn sie sind nicht wahr, obwohl sie den Schein der Wahrheit tragen”; Hans Christian Adam, “Zwischen Geschäft und Abenteuer. Der Photograph im 19. Jahrhundert”; and Dewitz, Bodo von, “‘Ich lege mir ein Album an und sammle nun Photographien.’ Kaiserin Elisabeth von Österreich und die Carte-de-Visite-Photographie,” all in Alles Wahrheit! Alles Lüge! Photographie und Wirklichkeit im 19. Jahrhundert, ed. Dewitz, Bodo von and Scotti, Roland (Cologne: Verlag de Kunst, 1996), 15–23, 25–33, and 95–105, respectivelyGoogle Scholar. See also Maas, Ellen, Die goldenen Jahre der Photoalben. Fundgrube und Spiegel von gestern (Cologne: DuMont Buchverlag, 1977), 62–67, 72–74, 78–88, 92Google Scholar.

70 For examples of royal retouching, see Asser and Ruitenberg, “Der Kaiser im Bild,” 26; Windt, “Bilderflut,” 70.

71 Weise, “Pressefotografie III,” 26–28.

72 Disdéri produced “mosaic” photographs as early as 1863, pasting together more than 300 of his celebrity portraits. Maas, Die goldenen Jahre, 63.

73 For a description of montage techniques, see Walter, Postkarte, 169–196.

74 Anon., “Vom Tage,” Der Kunstwart 11, no. 2 (1897–1898): 356.

75 “Stümperisch” in the assessment of Asser and Ruitenberg, “Der Kaiser im Bild,” 41.

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84 Plunkett, Queen Victoria, 29, 35, 69, and in general chap. two; Homans, Royal Representations, 4–33; Munich, Adrienne, Queen Victoria's Secrets (New York: Columbia University Press, 1996), 21, 53, 72–73, 79–80, 100, 193Google Scholar.

85 Freifeld, Alice, “Empress Elisabeth as Hungarian Queen: The Uses of Celebrity Monarchism,” in The Limits of Loyalty: Imperial Symbolism, Popular Allegiances, and State Patriotism in the Late Habsburg Monarchy, ed. Cole, Laurence and Unowsky, Daniel L. (New York: Berghahn Books, 2007), 138–161Google Scholar. On the domestication of Elisabeth's image, see also Vogel, Juliane, Elisabeth von Österreich. Momente aus dem Leben einer Kunstfigur (Frankfurt am Main: Neue Kritik, 1998)Google Scholar.

86 Dickie, J. F., In the Kaiser's Capital (New York: Dodd, Mead & Co., 1910), 1Google Scholar; Lindenberg, Paul, Am Kaiserhofe zu Berlin (Berlin: Karl Siegismund, 1894), 18–28Google Scholar.

87 Wilhelm Crown Prince, Memoirs, 15. See also Zedlitz-Trützschler, Robert, Zwölf Jahre am deutschen Kaiserhof (Stuttgart: Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, 1924), 67, 101Google Scholar.

88 Giloi, Monarchy, treats this subject in detail.

89 See also the example in König, Wilhelm II., 144.

90 Lears, “From Salvation to Self-Realization.”

91 For souvenirs, see Stewart, Susan, On Longing: Narratives of the Miniature, the Gigantic, the Souvenir, the Collection (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1993, 1984), chap. fiveGoogle Scholar.

92 Anon., “Vom Tage,” Der Kunstwart 11, no. 2 (1897–1898): 356Google Scholar.

93 I use this term in the Shilsian sense, as “the center of the order of symbols, of values and beliefs, which govern [a] society.” Shils, Edward, Center and Periphery—Essays in Macrosociology (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1975), 3Google Scholar.

94 For the functions of tourism, see Koshar, Rudy, German Travel Cultures (Oxford: Berg, 2000)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Baranowski, Shelley and Furlough, Ellen, ed., Being Elsewhere: Tourism, Consumer Culture, and Identity in Modern Europe and North America (Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 2001)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Stewart, On Longing, 132–139; Blom, Thomas, “Morbid Tourism: The Case of Diana, Princess of Wales and Althorp House,” in Royal Tourism: Excursions around Monarchy, ed. Long, Philip and Palmer, Nicola J. (Clevedon: Channel View, 2008), 142–158Google Scholar.

95 See the section on “Der Kaiser in Berlin,” in Anon., Berlin und die Berliner. Leute, Dinge, Sitten, Winke (Karlsruhe: J. Bielefelds, 1905), 293–302Google Scholar. See also Koshar, German Travel Cultures, 53–54; Schauffler, Robert Haven, Romantic Germany (New York: Century, 1909), 41–42, 93, 95Google Scholar; Baker, Seen in Germany, 41–42; James Huneker, “Huneker Prowls Around Kaiser's Jubilee City,” New York Times, June 22, 1913. See also Breck, “Cavalry Against Infantry,” New York Times, October 1, 1898; “Military Displays for Berlin Visitors,” New York Times, June 30, 1909; “Americans Flock to German Capital,” New York Times, June 29, 1910; “Tide of Americans Slackens in Berlin,” New York Times, September 8, 1912.

96 Johns, Piracy, 320–325. For the same arguments in the present-day, see Zemer, Lior, The Idea of Authorship in Copyright (Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 2007)Google Scholar.

97 See, for instance, the viral video that spoofs the Hitler biopic Downfall to mock the Apple iPad, which the film's producers sought to block through recourse to copyright laws.

98 GStA-PK, I HA Rep. 77 Tit. 96 Nr. 22, correspondence Holle, Moltke, Eulenburg, and Valentini, July 7 to November 4, 1908, unpaginated.

99 These statements are from postcards in the author's collection. For another example of postcards used like telephones, see Stresemann, Wolfgang, Zeiten und Klänge. Ein Leben zwischen Musik und Politik (Frankfurt am Main: Ullstein, 1994), 20Google Scholar.

100 GStA-PK, I HA Rep. 89 Nr. 2322, Carl Felix Ahlemann to Wilhelm II, September 28, 1898, Blatt 129–130; Wilhelmine Loewengard to Wilhelm II, September 30, 1898, Blatt 132–133; Eva Schellbach to Wilhelm II, October 4, 1898, Blatt 136–137. GStA-PK, I HA Rep. 89 Nr. 2792, correspondence Irmgard und Else, Polizei-Inspektor in Wiesbaden, Wilhelm II, May 23, 1900, Blatt 100–102.

101 GStA-PK, I HA Rep. 89 Nr. 2322, Ernst Adolf to Wilhelm II, January 8, 1896, Blatt 48–51; Wilhelmine Loewengard to Wilhelm II, September 30, 1898, Blatt 132–133; GStA-PK, I HA Rep. 89 Nr. 2792, Oberhofmeister to Wilhelm II, June 17, 1889, Blatt 76; Lucanus to Bülow, October 31, 1907, 154, 156. GStA-PK, I HA Rep. 89 Nr. 2324, correspondence Böttrich and Lucanus, December 1 and 28, 1907, and February 7 and 8, 1908, Blatt 3–4, 6–7; Lolia de Biasy Macro to Wilhelm II, December 21, 1910, and January 18, 1911; Blatt 6; Vermerk 1913, Blatt 116.

102 See the postcards in GStA-PK, I HA Rep. 89 Nr. 851, “Dem Kaiser übersandte Ansichtspostkarten, 1905–1908.” The examples here are specifically Theodor Bartels to Wilhelm II, November 1906, postcard number 147; and Max Peich, Pauline Rassler, and Sophie Peich to Wilhelm II, 1906, postcard number 61. For letters returned as inappropriate, see White, Andrew Dickson, Autobiography of Andrew Dickson White, 2 vols. (New York: Century, 1905), vol. 2, 174–175Google Scholar.

103 GStA-PK, I HA Rep. 89 Nr. 851, Fritz Pellmann to Wilhelm II, 1906, postcard number 146.

104 “Der Kaiser ist ein lieber Mann, er wohnet in Berlin, und wäre es nicht so weit von hier, so ging ich heut noch hin.” Ellscheid, Rosa Maria, Erinnerungen von 1896–1987 (Cologne: Stadtmuseum, 1988), 60Google Scholar.

105 Ibid., 61; von Hentig, Werner Otto, Mein Leben eine Dienstreise (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1962), 7Google Scholar; Roth, Eugen, Erinnerungen eines Vergesslichen. Anekdoten und Geschichten (Munich: Carl Hanser, 1972), 44Google Scholar.

106 Marcuse, Mein Zwanzigstes Jahrhundert, 17; von Scholz, Wilhelm, Berlin und Bodensee. Erinnerungen einer Jugend (Leipzig: P. List, 1934), 50–51Google Scholar.

107 The first is from a postcard written by a schoolgirl in 1909 (author's collection). See also Mann, Golo, Reminiscences and Reflections: A Youth in Germany, trans. Winston, Krischna (New York: W. W. Norton, 1990), 11.Google Scholar

108 Anon., “Geschenkbüsten Friedrichs des Grossen,” Der Sammler 13 (1891): 32Google Scholar. For other ways in which Wilhelm II used gifts and museum displays to set social distinctions, see Giloi, Monarchy.

109 GStA-PK, I HA Rep. 89 Nr. 2321, correspondence von der Recke von der Horst, November 24, 1889, Blatt 41. GStA-PK, I HA Rep. 89 Nr. 2323, correspondence Holwede and Lucanus, February 18 and 29, 1904, Blatt 116–117. GStA-PK, I HA Rep. 89 Nr. 2324, Plehm to Valentini and marginalia, November 5, 1909, Blatt 89–90. GStA-PK, I HA Rep. 89 Nr. 2325, Valentini to Minister für Handel und Gewerbe, May 1, 1914, Blatt 190. For a more open-handed policy, see Italy's Crown Prince Umberto. Schwarzenbach, “Royal Photographs,” 258–260.

110 GStA-PK, I HA Rep. 89 Nr. 2322, Carl Felix Ahlemann to Wilhelm II, September 28, 1898, Blatt 129–130. GStA-PK, I HA Rep. 89 Nr. 2323, correspondence Holwede and Lucanus, February 18 and 29, 1904, Blatt 116–117. For Wilhelm I, see Giloi, Monarchy, chap. ten.

111 GStA-PK, I HA Rep. 89 Nr. 2322, Ernst Adolf zu Münster to Wilhelm II, January 8, 1896, Blatt 48–51; Friedrich Ehlert to Wilhelm II, January 10, 1897, Blatt 71-72. GStA-PK, I HA Rep. 89 Nr. 2323, Anna Huber to Wilhelm II, June 22, 1906, Blatt 203–204.

112 See the respective files in GStA-PK, I HA Rep. 89 Nr. 2321, 2322, and 2325. The two women who received portraits in their own right, and not as wives of high-ranking officials, were Professor Johanna Mestorf, for her work as director of the Schleswig-Holstein Museum Vaterländischer Alterthümer, and Countess Charlotte von Itzenplitz, for her work as chair of the Vaterländischer Frauenverein. See respectively GStA-PK, I HA Rep. 89 Nr. 2324, Vermerk 1909, Blatt 70; and GStA-PK, I HA Rep. 89 Nr. 2325, Vermerk 1911, Blatt 47.

113 On the Italian dynasty, see Schwarzenbach, “Royal Photographs,” 260. Schwarzenbach claims the Prussian monarchy likewise gave out photographs in large numbers, but this is not accurate. See GStA-PK, I HA Rep. 89 Nr. 2792, correspondence Bismarck, Lucanus, and Martha Dannenbaum, October 28 and November 5, 1889, and January 26, 1891, Blatt 79–84. GStA-PK, I HA Rep. 89 Nr. 2321, Vermerk: [around 1890], Blatt 51. GStA-PK, I HA Rep. 89 Nr. 2322, Vermerk 1901, Blatt 243a. GStA-PK, I HA Rep. 89 Nr. 2323, Vermerk 1903, Blatt 63; Vermerk 1907, Blatt 249. GStA-PK, I HA Rep. 89 Nr. 2325, Vermerk 1911, Blatt 49; Vermerk 1913, Blatt 139. For monuments, see GStA-PK, I HA Rep. 89 Nr. 2323,Vermerk 1905, Blatt 174; Vermerk 1906, Blatt 213. GStA-PK, I HA Rep. 89 Nr. 2324,Vermerk 1908, Blatt 22a; Vermerk 1908, Blatt 28. GStA-PK, I HA Rep. 89 Nr. 2325, Vermerk 1913, Blatt 129; Vermerk 1913, Blatt 154. For maneuvers, see GStA-PK, I HA Rep. 89 Nr. 2321, Vermerk 1891, Blatt 79. GStA-PK, I HA Rep. 89 Nr. 2323, Vermerk 1907, Blatt 258. GStA-PK, I HA Rep. 89 Nr. 2325, Vermerk 1912, Blatt 88.

114 For gifts, see GStA-PK BPH, Rep. 113, Nr. 1170, correspondence Scheibler, Eulenburg, and Moltke, January 28 to February 13, 1908, Blatt 275–280. GStA-PK BPH, Rep. 113, Nr. 1171, correspondence Hugo Marcuse and Eulenburg, February 8 to 16, 1911, Blatt 146-149; correspondence Julie Ruppel, Eulenburg, and Jacobi, August 18 to 24, 1908, Blatt 37–38. GStA-PK, I HA Rep. 89 Nr. 2321, Vermerk 1891, Blatt 97. GStA-PK, I HA Rep. 89 Nr. 2322, Lucanus to Hohenlohe-Schillingsfürst, August 23, 1898, Blatt 125. GStA-PK, I HA Rep. 89 Nr. 2323, Vermerk 1905, Blatt 162. GStA-PK, I HA Rep. 89 Nr. 2324, Vermerk 1909, Blatt 63. For steamships, see GStA-PK, I HA Rep. 89 Nr. 2322, Vermerk 1901, Blatt 239. GStA-PK, I HA Rep. 89 Nr. 2325, Vermerk 1913, Blatt 116; Valentini to Eulenburg, June 13, 1914, Blatt 212. For telegraphy, see GStA-PK, I HA Rep. 89 Nr. 2323, Vermerk 1906, Blatt 229. For athletics, see GStA-PK, I HA Rep. 89 Nr. 2325, Vermerk 1913, Blatt 123. For choral societies, see GStA-PK, I HA Rep. 89 Nr. 2322, Vermerk 1901, Blatt 238. GStA-PK, I HA Rep. 89 Nr. 2324, Valentini to Eulenburg, May 25, 1909, Blatt 77; Vermerk 1909, Blatt 88b. GStA-PK, I HA Rep. 89 Nr. 2792, Vermerk February 21, 1913, Blatt 159k. For philanthropy, see GStA-PK, I HA Rep. 89 Nr. 2324, correspondence Moltke, Holle, and Lucanus, March 18 and April 24, 1908, Blatt 18–20; Vermerk 1909, Blatt 83; Vermerk 1909, Blatt 87. GStA-PK, I HA Rep. 89 Nr. 2325, Vermerk 1912, Blatt 65; Valentini to Eulenburg, March 26, 1914, Blatt 181.

115 GStA-PK, I HA Rep. 89 Nr. 2322, Vermerk 1901, Blatt 239. GStA-PK, I HA Rep. 89 Nr. 2323, Vermerk 1903, Blatt 52. GStA-PK, I HA Rep. 89 Nr. 2324, correspondence Ballin, Eulenburg, and Valentini, January 8 and February 17, 1910, Blatt 113. GStA-PK, I HA Rep. 89 Nr. 2325, Vermerk 1912, Blatt 65; Vermerk 1913, Blatt 116. The diplomats included the daughter of Robert Bacon, U.S. ambassador to France; the wife of Charlemagne Tower, U.S. ambassador to Germany; and the wife of the Danish envoy to Berlin. GStA-PK BPH, Rep. 113, Nr. 1170, correspondence Speck von Sternburg and Eulenburg, April 19 to May 3, 1904, Blatt 42-45. GStA-PK, I HA Rep. 89 Nr. 2323, Charlemagne Tower to Lucanus, March 25, 1907, Blatt 242. GStA-PK, I HA Rep. 89 Nr. 2325, Charlemagne Tower to Valentini, December 4, 1911, Blatt 56. de Hegermann-Lindencrone, Lillie, The Sunny Side of Diplomatic Life 1875–1912 (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1914), 300–302Google Scholar.

116 Asser and Ruitenberg, “Der Kaiser im Bild,” 34.

117 Smyth, Ethel, “Berlin and the Kaiser Twenty Years Ago,” The London Mercury 3, no. 16 (1921): 378Google Scholar. See also the same views voiced by Wilhelm's American dentist, A. N. Davis, and Reverend James F. Dickie, the minister of the American Church in Berlin, in, respectively, Herre, Franz, Kaiser Wilhelm II. Monarch zwischen den Zeiten (Cologne: Kiepenheuer & Witsch, 1993), 139Google Scholar; and Dickie, In the Kaiser's Capital, 1.

118 Hegermann-Lindencrone, The Sunny Side, 300–302.

119 Kohlrausch, “Workings,” 60. The texts of both are reproduced in II, Wilhelm, Reden des Kaisers. Ansprachen, Predigten und Trinksprüche Wilhelms II., ed. Johann, Ernst (Munich: Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag, 1966), 116–122Google Scholar.

120 II, Wilhelm, Die Reden Kaiser Wilhelms II., ed. Penzler, Johannes and Krieger, Bogdan, 4 vols. (Leipzig: Philipp Reclam, around 1913), vol. 4, 7–8Google Scholar.

121 See the speeches in Wilhelm II, Reden des Kaisers; Wilhelm II, Die Reden Kaiser Wilhelms II.; II, Wilhelm, The German Emperor as Shown in his Public Utterances, ed. Gauss, Christian (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons), 1915Google Scholar.

122 Franziska Windt notes that the practice of giving out photographs expanded after 1907. Windt, “Bilderflut,” 76. The files show, however, that the types of recipients remained the same.

123 Lears, “From Salvation to Self-Realization,” 33.

124 Schwarzenbach's claim about professional publicity, in Schwarzenbach, “Royal Photographs,” 272, does not hold true for the German case.

125 On Wilhelm II's desire to be popular, as well as his sense of self-pity and personal affront, see Kohut, Wilhelm II.

126 König, Wilhelm II., elaborated extensively on this point. The same lack of concerted program can be seen in the emperor's foreign policy, which Thomas Kohut described as “emotionally reactive” rather than coherent and consistent. Kohut, Wilhelm II, 153.

127 Clark, Kaiser Wilhelm II, 161–163; Sösemann, “Hollow-Sounding Jubilees,” 42–43; Wilhelm II, Reden des Kaisers, 116; Brude-Firnau, Gisela, “Preussische Predigt. Die Reden Wilhelms II.,” in The Turn of the Century: German Literature and Art, 1890–1915, ed. Chapple, Gerald and Schulte, Hans H. (Bonn: Bouvier Verlag Herbert Grundmann, 1981), 167Google Scholar.

128 Marschall, Birgit, Reisen und Regieren. Die Nordlandfahrten Kaiser Wilhelms II. (Heidelberg: Carl Winter Universitätsverlag, 1991), 194–196Google Scholar.

129 Wilhelm II, Die Reden des Kaisers, 77–79, 99–103. For princely patronage, see Daniel, Ute, Hoftheater. Zur Geschichte des Theaters und der Höfe im 18. und 19. Jahrhundert (Stuttgart: Klett-Cotta, 1995)Google Scholar.

130 Kohlrausch, “Workings,” 59–63.

131 Rathenau, Walther, Der Kaiser. Eine Betrachtung (Berlin: Fischer, 1919), 30Google Scholar. Max Weber discussed the term “Caesaropapism” in Weber, Max, Economy and Society: An Outline of Interpretive Sociology, ed. and trans. Roth, Guenther and Wittich, Claus, 2 vols. (Berkeley and Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press, 1978), vol. 2, 1159–1177Google Scholar. For Wilhelm II's belief in his divine message, see Brude-Firnau, “Preussische Predigt,” 149–170, esp. 159–160.

132 Kohlrausch, “Workings,” and on a larger scale, Kohlrausch, Monarch.

133 Kohlrausch, “Workings,” 62.

134 Kohlrausch, Monarch, section five.