Hostname: page-component-8448b6f56d-qsmjn Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-18T05:23:03.496Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Genetic and environmental influences on the codevelopment among borderline personality disorder traits, major depression symptoms, and substance use disorder symptoms from adolescence to young adulthood

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  19 April 2017

Marina A. Bornovalova ,
Brad Verhulst ,
Troy Webber ,
Matt McGue ,
William G. Iacono  and
Brian M. Hicks
Marina A. Bornovalova*
Affiliation:
University of South Florida
Brad Verhulst
Affiliation:
Virginia Commonwealth University
Troy Webber
Affiliation:
University of South Florida
Matt McGue
Affiliation:
University of Minnesota
William G. Iacono
Affiliation:
University of Minnesota
Brian M. Hicks
Affiliation:
University of Michigan
*
Address correspondence and reprint requests to: Marina A. Bornovalova, Department of Psychology, University of South Florida, 4202 East Fowler Avenue, PCD4118G, Tampa, FL 33620; E-mail: bornvalova@usf.edu.
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Although borderline personality disorder (BPD) traits decline from adolescence to adulthood, comorbid psychopathology such as symptoms of major depressive disorder (MDD), alcohol use disorder (AUD), and drug use disorders (DUDs) likely disrupt this normative decline. Using a longitudinal sample of female twins (N = 1,763), we examined if levels of BPD traits were correlated with changes in MDD, AUD, and DUD symptoms from ages 14 to 24. A parallel process biometric latent growth model examined the contributions of genetic and environmental factors to the relationships between developmental components of these phenotypes. Higher BPD trait levels predicted a greater rate of increase in AUD and DUD symptoms, and higher AUD and DUD symptoms predicted a slower rate of decline of BPD traits from ages 14 to 24. Common genetic influences accounted for the associations between BPD traits and each disorder, as well as the interrelationships of AUD and DUD symptoms. Both genetic and nonshared environmental influences accounted for the correlated levels between BPD traits and MDD symptoms, but solely environmental influences accounted for the correlated changes between the two over time. Results indicate that higher levels of BPD traits may contribute to an earlier onset and faster escalation of AUD and DUD symptoms, and substance use problems slow the normative decline in BPD traits. Overall, our data suggests that primarily genetic influences contribute to the comorbidity between BPD features and substance use disorder symptoms. We discuss our data in the context of two major theories of developmental psychopathology and comorbidity.

Type
Regular Articles
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 30 , Issue 1 , February 2018 , pp. 49 - 65
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2017 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

Data for this project were collected at the University of Minnesota. This work was supported by National Institute of Drug Abuse Grants DA05147, DA034606, DA036216, and P30DA028807 and National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism Grants AA09367 and AA015621. Marina A. Bornovalova was supported by National Institute of Drug Abuse Grant DA032582, Brad Verhulst was supported by National Institute of Drug Abuse Grants DA026119 and DA018637, and Brian M. Hicks was supported by Grant DA025868. All authors had full access to all of the data in the study and take responsibility for the integrity of the data and accuracy of the data analysis. No conflict of interest exists for any of the authors.

References

Abraham, H. D., & Fava, M. (1999). Order of onset of substance abuse and depression in a sample of depressed outpatients. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 40, 44–50. doi:10.1016/s0010-440x(99)90076-7 Google Scholar
American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Arlington, VA: Author.Google Scholar
Beauchaine, T. P., Gatzke-Kopp, L., & Mead, H. K. (2007). Polyvagal theory and developmental psychopathology: Emotion dysregulation and conduct problems from preschool to adolescence. Biological Psychology, 74, 174–184. doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2005.08.008 Google Scholar
Beauchaine, T. P., Klein, D. N., Crowell, S. E., Derbidge, C., & Gatzke-Kopp, L. (2009). Multifinality in the development of personality disorders: A Biology × Sex × Environment interaction model of antisocial and borderline traits. Development and Psychopathology, 21, 735–770.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Beck, A., Schlagenhauf, F., Wüstenberg, T., Hein, J., Kienast, T., Kahnt, T., … Heinz, A. (2009). Ventral striatal activation during reward anticipation correlates with impulsivity in alcoholics. Biological Psychiatry, 66, 734–742.Google Scholar
Berlin, H. A., Rolls, E. T., & Iversen, S. D. (2005). Borderline personality disorder, impulsivity, and the orbitofrontal cortex. American Journal of Psychiatry, 162, 2360–2373.Google Scholar
Bernstein, D. P., Cohen, P., Velez, C. N., Schwabstone, M., Siever, L. J., & Shinsato, L. (1993). Prevalence and stability of the DSM-III-R personality-disorders in a community-based survey of adolescents. American Journal of Psychiatry, 150, 1237–1243.Google Scholar
Bjork, J. M., Knutson, B., Fong, G. W., Caggiano, D. M., Bennett, S. M., & Hommer, D. W. (2004). Incentive-elicited brain activation in adolescents: Similarities and differences from young adults. Journal of Neuroscience, 24, 1793–1802. doi:10.1523/jneurosci.4862-03.2004 Google Scholar
Bornovalova, M. A., Hicks, B. M., Iacono, W. G., & McGue, M. (2009). Stability, change, and heritability of borderline personality disorder traits from adolescence to adulthood: A longitudinal twin study. Development and Psychopathology, 21, 1335–1353. doi:10.1017/S0954579409990186 Google Scholar
Bornovalova, M. A., Hicks, B. M., Iacono, W. G., & McGue, M. (2013). Longitudinal twin study of borderline personality disorder traits and substance use in adolescence: Developmental change, reciprocal effects, and genetic and environmental influences. Personality Disorders: Theory Research and Treatment, 4, 23–32. doi:10.1037/a0027178 Google Scholar
Bornovalova, M. A., Hicks, B. M., Patrick, C. J., Iacono, W. G., & McGue, M. (2011). Development and validation of the Minnesota Borderline Personality Disorder Scale. Assessment, 18, 234–252. doi:10.1177/1073191111398320 Google Scholar
Bornovalova, M. A., Huibregtse, B. M., Hicks, B. M., Keyes, M., McGue, M., & Iacono, W. (2013). Tests of a direct effect of childhood abuse on adult borderline personality disorder traits: A longitudinal discordant twin design. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 122, 180.Google Scholar
Bornovalova, M. A., Lejuez, C. W., Daughters, S. B., Rosenthal, M. Z., & Lynch, T. R. (2005). Impulsivity as a common process across borderline personality and substance use disorders. Clinical Psychology Review, 25, 790–812. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2005.05.005 Google Scholar
Bovasso, G. B. (2001). Cannabis abuse as a risk factor for depressive symptoms. American Journal of Psychiatry, 158, 2033–2037. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.158.12.2033 Google Scholar
Bowirrat, A., & Oscar-Berman, M. (2005). Relationship between dopaminergic neurotransmission, alcoholism, and reward deficiency syndrome. American Journal of Medical Genetics, 132B, 29–37. doi:10.1002/ajmg.b.30080 Google Scholar
Brodsky, B. S., Oquendo, M., Ellis, S. P., Haas, G. L., Malone, K. M., & Mann, J. J. (2001). The relationship of childhood abuse to impulsivity and suicidal behavior in adults with major depression. American Journal of Psychiatry, 158, 1871–1877.Google Scholar
Burke, J. D., & Stepp, S. D. (2012). Adolescent disruptive behavior and borderline personality disorder symptoms in young adult men. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 40, 35–44. doi:10.1007/s10802-011-9558-7 Google Scholar
Burt, S. A., Krueger, R. F., McGue, M., & Iacono, W. G. (2001). Sources of covariation among attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, oppositional defiant disorder, and conduct disorder: The importance of shared environment. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 110, 516–525. doi:10.1037/0021-843x.110.4.516 Google Scholar
Burt, S. A., Krueger, R. F., McGue, M., & Iacono, W. (2003). Parent-child conflict and the comorbidity among childhood externalizing disorders. Archives of General Psychiatry, 60, 505–513. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.60.5.505 Google Scholar
Chassin, L., Flora, D. B., & King, K. M. (2004). Trajectories of alcohol and drug use and dependence from adolescence to adulthood: The effects of familial alcoholism and personality. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 113, 483–498. doi:10.1037/0021-843x.113.4.483 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chen, P., & Jacobson, K. C. (2012). Developmental trajectories of substance use from early adolescence to young adulthood: Gender and racial/ethnic differences. Journal of Adolescent Health, 50, 154–163.Google Scholar
Clarkin, J. F., Hull, J. W., Cantor, J., & Sanderson, C. (1993). Borderline personality disorder and personality traits: A comparison of SCID-II BPD and NEO-PI. Psychological Assessment, 5, 472.Google Scholar
Coccaro, E. F., Siever, L. J., Klar, H. M., Maurer, G., Cochrane, K., Cooper, T. B., … Davis, K. L. (1989). Serotonergic studies in patients with affective and personality disorders: Correlates with suicidal and impulsive aggressive behavior. Archives of General Psychiatry, 46, 587–599.Google Scholar
Cohen, P., Crawford, T. N., Johnson, J. G., & Kasen, S. (2005). The children in the community study of developmental course of personality disorder. Journal of Personality Disorders, 19, 466–486. doi:10.1521/pedi.2005.19.5.466 Google Scholar
Compton, W. M., Thomas, Y. F., Stinson, F. S., & Grant, B. F. (2007). Prevalence, correlates, disability, and comorbidity of DSM-IV drug abuse and dependence in the United States—Results from the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions. Archives of General Psychiatry, 64, 566–576. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.64.5.566 Google Scholar
Costello, E. J., Mustillo, S., Erkanli, A., Keeler, G., & Angold, A. (2003). Prevalence and development of psychiatric disorders in childhood and adolescence. Archives of General Psychiatry, 60, 837–844. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.60.8.837 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cremers, H. R., Demenescu, L. R., Aleman, A., Renken, R., van Tol, M. J., van der Wee, N. J. A., … Roelofs, K. (2010). Neuroticism modulates amygdala-prefrontal connectivity in response to negative emotional facial expressions. NeuroImage, 49, 963–970. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.08.023 Google Scholar
Crowell, S. E., Beauchaine, T. P., & Linehan, M. M. (2009). A biosocial developmental model of borderline personality: Elaborating and extending Linehan's theory. Psychological Bulletin, 135, 495.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Davidson, R. J., Pizzagalli, D., Nitschke, J. B., & Putnam, K. (2002). Depression: Perspectives from affective neuroscience. Annual Review of Psychology, 53, 545–574. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135148 Google Scholar
De Panfilis, C., Politi, V., Fortunati, R., Cazzolla, R., Scaramuzzino, M., Marchesi, C., & Maggini, C. (2011). Two-year follow-up of borderline personality disorder patients in Italy: A preliminary report on prognosis and prediction of outcome. International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 57, 528–537. doi:10.1177/0020764010368619 Google Scholar
De Wit, H. (2009). Impulsivity as a determinant and consequence of drug use: A review of underlying processes. Addiction Biology, 14, 22–31.Google Scholar
DeYoung, C. G., Hirsh, J. B., Shane, M. S., Papademetris, X., Rajeevan, N., & Gray, J. R. (2010). Testing predictions from personality neuroscience: Brain structure and the Big Five. Psychological Science, 21, 820–828. doi:10.1177/0956797610370159 Google Scholar
Dick, D. M., Smith, G., Olausson, P., Mitchell, S. H., Leeman, R. F., O'Malley, S. S., & Sher, K. (2010). Review: Understanding the construct of impulsivity and its relationship to alcohol use disorders. Addiction Biology, 15, 217–226.Google Scholar
Distel, M. A., Middeldorp, C. M., Trul, T. J., Derom, C. A., Willemsen, G., & Boomsma, D. I. (2011). Life events and borderline personality features: The influence of gene-environment interaction and gene-environment correlation. Psychological Medicine, 41, 849–860. doi:10.1017/S0033291710001297 Google Scholar
Distel, M. A., Rebollo-Mesa, I., Willemsen, G., Derom, C. A., Trull, T. J., Martin, N. G., & Boomsma, D. I. (2009). Familial resemblance of borderline personality disorder features: Genetic or cultural transmission? PLOS ONE, 4, e5334. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0005334 Google Scholar
Distel, M. A., Trull, T. J., de Moor, M. M. H., Vink, J. M., Geels, L. M., van Beek, J. H. D. A., … Boomsma, D. I. (2012). Borderline personality traits and substance use: Genetic factors underlie the association with smoking and ever use of cannabis, but not with high alcohol consumption. Journal of Personality Disorders, 26, 867–879. doi:10.1521/pedi.2012.26.6.867 Google Scholar
Distel, M. A., Trull, T. J., Derom, C. A., Thiery, E. W., Grimmer, M. A., Martin, N. G., … Boomsma, D. I. (2008). Heritability of borderline personality disorder features is similar across three countries. Psychological Medicine, 38, 1219–1229. doi:10.1017/s0033291707002024 Google Scholar
Distel, M. A., Trull, T. J., Willemsen, G., Vink, J. M., Derom, C. A., Lynskey, M., … Boomsma, D. I. (2009). The Five-Factor Model of Personality and Borderline Personality Disorder: A genetic analysis of comorbidity. Biological Psychiatry, 66, 1131–1138. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2009.07.017 Google Scholar
Drevets, W. C., & Raichle, M. E. (1998). Reciprocal suppression of regional cerebral blood flow during emotional versus higher cognitive processes: Implications for interactions between emotion and cognition. Cognition & Emotion, 12, 353–385.Google Scholar
Driessen, M., Herrmann, J., Stahl, K., Zwaan, M., Meier, S., Hill, A., … Petersen, D. (2000). Magnetic resonance imaging volumes of the hippocampus and the amygdala in women with borderline personality disorder and early traumatization. Archives of General Psychiatry, 57, 1115–1122. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.57.12.1115 Google Scholar
Durbin, C. E., & Hicks, B. M. (2014). Personality and psychopathology: A stagnant field in need of development. European Journal of Personality, 28, 362–386.Google Scholar
Durbin, C. E., Hicks, B. M., Blonigen, D. M., Johnson, W., Iacono, W. G., & McGue, M. (2016). Personality trait change across late childhood to young adulthood: Evidence for nonlinearity and sex differences in change. European Journal of Personality, 30, 31–44. doi:10.1002/per.2013 Google Scholar
Dussault, F., Brendgen, M., Vitaro, F., Wanner, B., & Tremblay, R. E. (2011). Longitudinal links between impulsivity, gambling problems and depressive symptoms: A transactional model from adolescence to early adulthood. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 52, 130–138.Google Scholar
Ernst, M., & Fudge, J. L. (2009). A developmental neurobiological model of motivated behavior: Anatomy, connectivity and ontogeny of the triadic nodes. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 33, 367–382. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2008.10.009 Google Scholar
Everitt, B. J., & Robbins, T. W. (2005). Neural systems of reinforcement for drug addiction: From actions to habits to compulsion. Nature Neuroscience, 8, 1481–1489. doi:10.1038/nn1579 Google Scholar
Forbes, E., Brown, S., Kimak, M., Ferrell, R., Manuck, S., & Hariri, A. (2009). Genetic variation in components of dopamine neurotransmission impacts ventral striatal reactivity associated with impulsivity. Molecular Psychiatry, 14, 60–70.Google Scholar
Frankenburg, F. R., Fitzmaurice, G. M., & Zanarini, M. C. (2014). The use of prescription opioid medication by patients with borderline personality disorder and Axis II comparison subjects: A 10-year follow-up study. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 75, 357–361. doi:10.4088/JCP.13m08557 Google Scholar
Friedel, R. O. (2004). Dopamine dysfunction in borderline personality disorder: A hypothesis. Neuropsychopharmacology, 29, 1029–1039.Google Scholar
Geier, C. F., Terwilliger, R., Teslovich, T., Velanova, K., & Luna, B. (2010). Immaturities in reward processing and its influence on inhibitory control in adolescence. Cerebral Cortex, 20, 1613–1629. doi:10.1093/cercor/bhp225 Google Scholar
Grant, B. F., Chou, S. P., Goldstein, R. B., Huang, B., Stinson, F. S., Saha, T. D., … Ruan, W. J. (2008). Prevalence, correlates, disability, and comorbidity of DSM-IV borderline personality disorder: Results from the Wave 2 National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 69, 533–545. doi:10.4088/JCP.v69n0404 Google Scholar
Grilo, C. M., Sanislow, C. A., Gunderson, J. G., Pagano, M. E., Yen, S., Zanarini, M. C., … McGlashan, T. H. (2004). Two-year stability and change of schizotypal, borderline, avoidant, and obsessive-compulsive personality disorders. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 72, 767–775. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.72.5.767 Google Scholar
Grilo, C. M., Sanislow, C. A., Shea, M. T., Skodol, A. E., Stout, R. L., Gunderson, J. G., … McGlashan, T. H. (2005). Two-year prospective naturalistic study of remission from major depressive disorder as a function of personality disorder comorbidity. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 73, 78–85. doi:10.1037/0022-006x.73.1.78 Google Scholar
Gunderson, J. G., Stout, R. L., Sanislow, C. A., Shea, M. T., McGlashan, T. H., Zanarini, M. C., … Skodol, A. E. (2008). New episodes and new onsets of major depression in borderline and other personality disorders. Journal of Affective Disorders, 111, 40–45.Google Scholar
Gunderson, J. G., Stout, R. L., Shea, M. T., Grilo, C. M., Markowitz, J. C., Morey, L. C., … McGlashan, T. H. (2014). Interactions of borderline personality disorder and mood disorders over ten years. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 75, 829–834.Google Scholar
Haas, B. W., Omura, K., Constable, R. T., & Canli, T. (2007). Emotional conflict and neuroticism: Personality-dependent activation in the amygdala and subgenual anterior cingulate. Behavioral Neuroscience, 121, 1173–1173. doi:10.1037/0735-7044.121.6.1173 Google Scholar
Hamdi, N. R., & Iacono, W. G. (2014). Lifetime prevalence and co-morbidity of externalizing disorders and depression in prospective assessment. Psychological Medicine, 44, 315–324. doi:10.1017/s0033291713000627 Google Scholar
Hazlett, E. A., New, A. S., Newmark, R., Haznedar, M. M., Lo, J. N., Speiser, L. J., … Buchsbaum, M. S. (2005). Reduced anterior and posterior cingulate gray matter in borderline personality disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 58, 614–623. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2005.04.029 Google Scholar
Hettema, J. M., Neale, M. C., Myers, J. M., Prescott, C. A., & Kendler, K. S. (2006). A population-based twin study of the relationship between neuroticism and internalizing disorders. American Journal of Psychiatry, 163, 857–864. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.163.5.857 Google Scholar
Hettema, J. M., Prescott, C. A., & Kendler, K. S. (2003). The effects of anxiety, substance use and conduct disorders on risk of major depressive disorder. Psychological Medicine, 33, 1423–1432. doi:10.1017/s0033291703008365 Google Scholar
Hopwood, C. J., Morey, L. C., Edelen, M. O., Shea, M. T., Grilo, C. M., Sanislow, C. A., … Skodol, A. E. (2008). A comparison of interview and self-report methods for the assessment of borderline personality disorder criteria. Psychological Assessment, 20, 81–85. doi:10.1037/1040-3590.20.1.81 Google Scholar
Hyman, S. E., Malenka, R. C., & Nestler, E. J. (2006). Neural mechanisms of addiction: The role of reward-related learning and memory. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 29, 565–598.Google Scholar
Iacono, W. G., Carlson, S. R., Taylor, J., Elkins, I. J., & McGue, M. (1999). Behavioral disinhibition and the development of substance-use disorders: Findings from the Minnesota Twin Family Study. Development and Psychopathology, 11, 869–900. doi:10.1017/S0954579499002369 Google Scholar
Insel, T., Cuthbert, B., Garvey, M., Heinssen, R., Pine, D. S., Quinn, K., … Wang, P. (2010). Research domain criteria (RDoC): Toward a new classification framework for research on mental disorders. American Journal of Psychiatry, 167, 748–751.Google Scholar
James, L. M., & Taylor, J. (2008). Revisiting the structure of mental disorders: Borderline personality disorder and the internalizing/externalizing spectra. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 47, 361–380. doi:10.1348/014466508×299691 Google Scholar
Jentsch, J. D., & Taylor, J. R. (1999). Impulsivity resulting from frontostriatal dysfunction in drug abuse: Implications for the control of behavior by reward-related stimuli. Psychopharmacology, 146, 373–390.Google Scholar
Johnson, J. G., Cohen, P., Kasen, S., Skodol, A. E., Hamagami, F., & Brook, J. S. (2000). Age-related change in personality disorder trait levels between early adolescence and adulthood: A community-based longitudinal investigation. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 102, 265–275. doi:10.1034/j.1600-0447.2000.102004265.x Google Scholar
Johnson, W., Hicks, B. M., McGue, M., & Iacono, W. G. (2007). Most of the girls are alright, but some aren't: Personality trajectory groups from ages 14 to 24 and some associations with outcomes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 93, 266–284. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.93.2.266 Google Scholar
Joseph, J. E., Liu, X., Jiang, Y., Lynam, D., & Kelly, T. H. (2009). Neural correlates of emotional reactivity in sensation seeking. Psychological Science, 20, 215–223. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2009.02283.x Google Scholar
Kaufman, E. A., Crowell, S. E., & Stepp, S. D. (2015). Self-injury, borderline personality development, and the externalizing spectrum. In Beauchaine, T. P. & Hinshaw, S. P. (Eds.), Oxford handbook of externalizing spectrum disorders (pp. 61–78). Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Keller, M. C., & Nesse, R. M. (2005). Is low mood an adaptation? Evidence for subtypes with symptoms that match precipitants. Journal of Affective Disorders, 86, 27–35. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2004.12.005 Google Scholar
Kelley, A. E., & Berridge, K. C. (2002). The neuroscience of natural rewards: Relevance to addictive drugs. Journal of Neuroscience, 22, 3306–3311.Google Scholar
Kendler, K. S., Aggen, S. H., Czajkowski, N., Roysamb, E., Tambs, K., Torgersen, S., … Reichborn-Kjennerud, T. (2008). The structure of genetic and environmental risk factors for DSM-IV personality disorders: A multivariate twin study. Archives of General Psychiatry, 65, 1438–1446. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.65.12.1438 Google Scholar
Kendler, K. S., Aggen, S. H., Knudsen, G. P., Røysamb, E., Neale, M. C., & Reichborn-Kjennerud, T. (2011). The structure of genetic and environmental risk factors for syndromal and subsyndromal common DSM-IV Axis I and all Axis II disorders. American Journal of Psychiatry, 168, 29–39. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2010.10030340 Google Scholar
Keyes, M. A., Malone, S. M., Elkins, I. J., Legrand, L. N., McGue, M., & Iacono, W. G. (2009). The Enrichment Study of the Minnesota Twin Family Study: Increasing the yield of twin families at high risk for externalizing psychopathology. Twin Research and Human Genetics, 12, 489–501. doi:10.1375/twin.12.5.489 Google Scholar
Koob, G. F. (1992). Drugs of abuse: Anatomy, pharmacology and function of reward pathways. Trends in Pharmacological Sciences, 13, 177–184. doi:10.1016/0165-6147(92)90060-j Google Scholar
Lee, H. J., Bagge, C. L., Schumacher, J. A., & Coffey, S. F. (2010). Does comorbid substance use disorder exacerbate borderline personality features? A comparison of borderline personality disorder individuals with vs. without current substance dependence. Personality Disorders: Theory Research and Treatment, 1, 239–249. doi:10.1037/a0017647 Google Scholar
Lenzenweger, M. F. (1999). Stability and change in personality disorder features: The Longitudinal Study of Personality Disorders. Archives of General Psychiatry, 56, 1009–1015. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.56.11.1009 Google Scholar
Lenzenweger, M. F. (2010). Current status of the scientific study of the personality disorders: An overview of epidemiological, longitudinal, experimental psychopathology, and neurobehavioral perspectives. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association, 58, 741–778. doi:10.1177/0003065110386111 Google Scholar
Lenzenweger, M. F., Lane, M. C., Loranger, A. W., & Kessler, R. C. (2007). DSM-IV personality disorders in the national comorbidity survey replication. Biological Psychiatry, 62, 553–564. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.09.019 Google Scholar
Lichtenstein, P., Carlstrom, E., Rastam, M., Gillberg, C., & Anckarsater, H. (2010). The genetics of autism spectrum disorders and related neuropsychiatric disorders in childhood. American Journal of Psychiatry, 167, 1357–1363. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2010.10020223 Google Scholar
Lilienfeld, S. O. (2003). Comorbidity between and within childhood externalizing and internalizing disorders: Reflections and directions. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 31, 285–291. doi:10.1023/a:1023229529866 Google Scholar
Linehan, M. (1993). Cognitive-behavioral treatment of borderline personality disorder. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Links, P. S., Heslegrave, R. J., Mitton, J. E., Vanreekum, R., & Patrick, J. (1995). Borderline personality disorder and substance abuse: Consequences of comorbidity. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry—Revue Canadienne De Psychiatrie, 40, 9–14.Google Scholar
Little, R. J. A., & Rubin, D. B. (1983). On jointly estimating parameters and missing data by maximizing the complete-data likelihood. American Statistician, 37, 218–220. doi:10.2307/2683374 Google Scholar
Maier, R., Moser, G., Chen, G. B., Ripke, S., Coryell, W., Potash, J. B., … Psychiatrics Genomics Consortium. (2015). Joint analysis of psychiatric disorders increases accuracy of risk prediction for schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and major depressive disorder. American Journal of Human Genetics, 96, 283–294. doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2014.12.006 Google Scholar
Makris, N., Oscar-Berman, M., Jaffin, S. K., Hodge, S. M., Kennedy, D. N., Caviness, V. S., … Harris, G. J. (2008). Decreased volume of the brain reward system in alcoholism. Biological Psychiatry, 64, 192–202. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2008.01.018 Google Scholar
Martin, L. E., & Potts, G. F. (2004). Reward sensitivity in impulsivity. NeuroReport, 15, 1519–1522.Google Scholar
McGilloway, A., Hall, R. E., Lee, T., & Bhui, K. S. (2010). A systematic review of personality disorder, race and ethnicity: Prevalence, aetiology and treatment. BMC Psychiatry, 10, 33. doi:10.1186/1471-244x-10-33 Google Scholar
McGlashan, T. H., Grilo, C. M., Skodol, A. E., Gunderson, J. G., Shea, M. T., Morey, L. C., … Stout, R. L. (2000). The Collaborative Longitudinal Personality Disorders Study: Baseline Axis I/II and II/II diagnostic co-occurrence. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 102, 256–264. doi:10.1034/j.1600-0447.2000.102004256.x Google Scholar
Meijer, M., Goedhart, A. W., & Treffers, P. D. A. (1998). The persistence of borderline personality disorder in adolescence. Journal of Personality Disorders, 12, 13–22. doi:10.1521/pedi.1998.12.1.13 Google Scholar
Merikangas, K. R., He, J. P., Burstein, M., Swanson, S. A., Avenevoli, S., Cui, L. H., … Swendsen, J. (2010). Lifetime prevalence of mental disorders in U.S. adolescents: Results from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication—Adolescent Supplement (NCS-A). Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 49, 980–989. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2010.05.017 Google Scholar
Moffitt, T. E. (1993). Adolescence-limited and life-course-persistent antisocial behavior: A developmental taxonomy. Psychological Review, 100, 674–701. doi:10.1037/0033-295x.100.4.674 Google Scholar
Molenaar, P., & Rovine, M. (1998). The covariance between level and shape in the latent growth curve model with estimated basis vector coefficients. Methods of Psychological Research Online, 3, 95–108.Google Scholar
Must, A., Szabó, Z., Bódi, N., Szász, A., Janka, Z., & Kéri, S. (2006). Sensitivity to reward and punishment and the prefrontal cortex in major depression. Journal of Affective Disorders, 90, 209–215.Google Scholar
Neale, M. C., Hunter, M. D., Pritikin, J. N., Zahery, M., Brick, T. R., Kirkpatrick, R. M., … Boker, S. M. (2016). OpenMx 2.0: Extended structural equation and statistical modeling. Psychometrika, 81, 535–549.Google Scholar
Neale, M. C., & McArdle, J. J. (2000). Structured latent growth curves for twin data. Twin Research, 3, 165–177.Google Scholar
Nelson, E. E., Leibenluft, E., McClure, E. B., & Pine, D. S. (2005). The social re-orientation of adolescence: A neuroscience perspective on the process and its relation to psychopathology. Psychological Medicine, 35, 163–174. doi:10.1017/s0033291704003915 Google Scholar
Nettle, D. (2006). The evolution of personality variation in humans and other animals. American Psychologist, 61, 622–631. doi:10.1037/0003-066x.61.6.622 Google Scholar
Paris, J., Brown, R., & Nowlis, D. (1987). Long-term follow-up of borderline patients in a general hospital. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 28, 530–535. doi:10.1016/0010-440X(87)90019-8 Google Scholar
Patrick, C. J., Curtin, J. J., & Tellegen, A. (2002). Development and validation of a brief form of the multidimensional personality questionnaire. Psychological Assessment, 14, 150–163. doi:10.1037/1040-3590.14.2.150 Google Scholar
Reich, W., & Welner, Z. (1988). Revised version of the Diagnostic Interview for Children and Adolescents (DICA-R). St. Louis, MO: Washington University School of Medicine, Department of Psychiatry.Google Scholar
Reichborn-Kjennerud, T., Czajkowski, N., Røysamb, E., Ørstavik, R. E., Neale, M. C., Torgersen, S., & Kendler, K. S. (2010). Major depression and dimensional representations of DSM-IV personality disorders: A population-based twin study. Psychological Medicine, 40, 1475–1484.Google Scholar
Reichborn-Kjennerud, T., Czajkowski, N., Ystrom, E., Orstavik, R., Aggen, S. H., Tambs, K., … Kendler, K. S. (2015). A longitudinal twin study of borderline and antisocial personality disorder traits in early to middle adulthood. Psychological Medicine, 45, 3121–3131. doi:10.1017/s0033291715001117 Google Scholar
Robbins, L. N., Cottler, L. B., & Babor, T. (1990). Composite International Diagnostic Interview—Expanded substance abuse module (CIDI-SAM). St. Louis, MO: Washington University School of Medicine.Google Scholar
Roberts, B. W., Caspi, A., & Moffitt, T. E. (2001). The kids are alright: Growth and stability in personality development from adolescence to adulthood. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 670–683. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.81.4.670 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Roberts, B. W., Walton, K. E., & Viechtbauer, W. (2006). Patterns of mean-level change in personality traits across the life course: A meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. Psychological Bulletin, 132, 1–25. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.132.1.1 Google Scholar
Rohde, P., Lewinsohn, P. M., Kahler, C. W., Seeley, J. R., & Brown, R. A. (2001). Natural course of alcohol use disorders from adolescence to young adulthood. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 40, 83–90. doi:10.1097/00004583-200101000-00020 Google Scholar
Rojas, E. C., Cummings, J. R., Bornovalova, M. A., Hopwood, C. J., Racine, S. E., Keel, P. K., … Klump, K. L. (2014). A further validation of the Minnesota Borderline Personality Disorder Scale. Personality Disorders: Theory Research and Treatment, 5, 146–153. doi:10.1037/per0000036 Google Scholar
Rojas, E. C., Hicks, B. M., Stark, S., Hopwood, C. J., & Bornovalova, M. A. (2015). Elaborating on the construct validity of the Minnesota Borderline Personality Disorder Scale (MBPD): A multi-sample, longitudinal examination. Psychological Assessment, 27, 332.Google Scholar
Sauder, C. L., Derbidge, C. M., & Beauchaine, T. P. (2016). Neural responses to monetary incentives among self-injuring adolescent girls. Development and Psychopathology, 28, 277–291.Google Scholar
Shea, M. T., Stout, R., Gunderson, J., Morey, L. C., Grilo, C. M., McGlashan, T., … Keller, M. B. (2002). Short-term diagnostic stability of schizotypal, borderline, avoidant, and obsessive-compulsive personality disorders. American Journal of Psychiatry, 159, 2036–2041. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.159.12.2036 Google Scholar
Silk, J. S., Steinberg, L., & Morris, A. S. (2003). Adolescents’ emotion regulation in daily life: Links to depressive symptoms and problem behavior. Child Development, 74, 1869–1880. doi:10.1046/j.1467-8624.2003.00643.x Google Scholar
Silk, K. R., Lee, S., Hill, E. M., & Lohr, N. E. (1995). Borderline personality disorder symptoms and severity of sexual abuse. American Journal of Psychiatry, 152, 1059–1064.Google Scholar
Singer, J. D., & Willett, J. B. (2003). Applied longitudinal data analysis: Modeling change and event occurrence. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Skodol, A. E., Gunderson, J. G., McGlashan, T. H., Dyck, I. R., Stout, R. L., Bender, D. S., … Sanislow, C. A. (2002). Functional impairment in patients with schizotypal, borderline, avoidant, or obsessive-compulsive personality disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 159, 276–283.Google Scholar
Smoller, J. W., Craddock, N., Kendler, K., Lee, P. H., Neale, B. M., Nurnberger, J. I., … Psychiatric Genomics Consortium. (2013). Identification of risk loci with shared effects on five major psychiatric disorders: A genome-wide analysis. Lancet, 381, 1371–1379. doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(12)62129-1 Google Scholar
Soldz, S., Budman, S., Demby, A., & Merry, J. (1993). Representation of personality disorders in circumplex and five-factor space: Explorations with a clinical sample. Psychological Assessment, 5, 41.Google Scholar
Soloff, P. H., Meltzer, C. C., Becker, C., Greer, P. J., Kelly, T. M., & Constantine, D. (2003). Impulsivity and prefrontal hypometabolism in borderline personality disorder. Psychiatry Research—Neuroimaging, 123, 153–163. doi:10.1016/s0925-4927(03)00064-7 Google Scholar
Spear, L. P. (2000). The adolescent brain and age-related behavioral manifestations. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 24, 417–463. doi:10.1016/s0149-7634(00)00014-2 Google Scholar
Spear, L. P. (2010). The behavioral neuroscience of adolescence. New York: Norton.Google Scholar
Spitzer, R. L., Williams, J. B. W., Gibbon, M., & First, M. B. (1987). Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-III-R (SCID). New York: New York State Psychiatric Institute, Biometrics Research Department.Google Scholar
Steinberg, L. (2007). Risk taking in adolescence—New perspectives from brain and behavioral science. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 16, 55–59. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8721.2007.00475.x Google Scholar
Stevens, M. C. (2009). The developmental cognitive neuroscience of functional connectivity. Brain and Cognition, 70, 1–12. doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2008.12.009 Google Scholar
Stice, E., Burton, E. M., & Shaw, H. (2004). Prospective relations between bulimic pathology, depression, and substance abuse: Unpacking comorbidity in adolescent girls. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 72, 587.Google Scholar
Tellegen, A. (1982). Brief manual for the Multidimensional Personality Questionnaire. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press.Google Scholar
Torgersen, S., Czajkowski, N., Jacobson, K., Reichborn-Kjennerud, T., Roysamb, E., Neale, M. C., & Kendler, K. S. (2008). Dimensional representations of DSM-IV cluster B personality disorders in a population-based sample of Norwegian twins: A multivariate study. Psychological Medicine, 38, 1617–1625. doi:10.1017/s0033291708002924 Google Scholar
Torgersen, S., Lygren, S., Oien, P. A., Skre, I., Onstad, S., Edvardsen, J., … Kringlen, E. (2000). A twin study of personality disorders. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 41, 416–425. doi:10.1053/comp.2000.16560 Google Scholar
Trull, T. J. (1992). DSM-III-R personality disorders and the five-factor model of personality: An empirical comparison. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 101, 553.Google Scholar
Trull, T. J., Sher, K. J., Minks-Brown, C., Durbin, J., & Burr, R. (2000). Borderline personality disorder and substance use disorders: A review and integration. Clinical Psychology Review, 20, 235–253. doi:10.1016/s0272-7358(99)00028-8 Google Scholar
Turner, R. J., & Gil, A. G. (2002). Psychiatric and substance use disorders in South Florida— Racial/ethnic and gender contrasts in a young adult cohort. Archives of General Psychiatry, 59, 43–50. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.59.1.43 Google Scholar
Tzschoppe, J., Nees, F., Banaschewski, T., Barker, G. J., Buchel, C., Conrod, P. J., … IMAGEN Consortium. (2014). Aversive learning in adolescents: Modulation by amygdala-prefrontal and amygdala-hippocampal connectivity and neuroticism. Neuropsychopharmacology, 39, 875–884. doi:10.1038/npp.2013.287 Google Scholar
Wahlstrom, D., White, T., & Luciana, M. (2010). Neurobehavioral evidence for changes in dopamine system activity during adolescence. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 34, 631–648. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2009.12.007 Google Scholar
Walter, M., Gunderson, J. G., Zanarini, M. C., Sanislow, C. A., Grilo, C. M., McGlashan, T. H., … Skodol, A. E. (2009). New onsets of substance use disorders in borderline personality disorder over 7 years of follow-ups: Findings from the Collaborative Longitudinal Personality Disorders Study. Addiction, 104, 97–103. doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2008.02413.x Google Scholar
Watson, P. J., & Andrews, P. W. (2002). Toward a revised evolutionary adaptationist analysis of depression: The social navigation hypothesis. Journal of Affective Disorders, 72, 1–14. doi:10.1016/s0165-0327(01)00459-1 Google Scholar
Wilbertz, G., van Elst, L. T., Delgado, M. R., Maier, S., Feige, B., Philipsen, A., & Blechert, J. (2012). Orbitofrontal reward sensitivity and impulsivity in adult attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. NeuroImage, 60, 353–361.Google Scholar
Wilson, S. T., Fertuck, E. A., Kwitel, A., Stanley, M. C., & Stanley, B. (2006). Impulsivity, suicidality and alcohol use disorders in adolescents and young adults with borderline personality disorder. International Journal of Adolescent Medicine and Health, 18, 189–196.Google Scholar
Wittchen, H. U., Nelson, C. B., & Lachner, G. (1998). Prevalence of mental disorders and psychosocial impairments in adolescents and young adults. Psychological Medicine, 28, 109–126. doi:10.1017/s0033291797005928 Google Scholar
Wrase, J., Schlagenhauf, F., Kienast, T., Wustenberg, T., Bermpohl, F., Kahnt, T., … Heinz, A. (2007). Dysfunction of reward processing correlates with alcohol craving in detoxified alcoholics. NeuroImage, 35, 787–794. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2006.11.043 Google Scholar
Wright, A., Zalewski, M., Hallquist, M., Hipwell, A., & Stepp, S. (2015). Developmental trajectories of borderline personality disorder symptoms and psychosocial functioning in adolescence. Journal of Personality Disorders, 29, 200.Google Scholar
Wright, A. G. C., Hopwood, C. J., & Zanarini, M. C. (2015). Associations between changes in normal personality traits and borderline personality disorder symptoms over 16 years. Personality Disorders: Theory Research and Treatment, 6, 1–11. doi:10.1037/per0000092 Google Scholar
Young, S. E., Friedman, N. P., Miyake, A., Willcutt, E. G., Corley, R. P., Haberstick, B. C., & Hewitt, J. K. (2009). Behavioral disinhibition: Liability for externalizing spectrum disorders and its genetic and environmental relation to response inhibition across adolescence. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 118, 117–130. doi:10.1037/a0014657 Google Scholar
Zanarini, M. C., Frankenburg, F. R., Hennen, J., Reich, D. B., & Silk, K. R. (2004). Axis I comorbidity in patients with borderline personality disorder: 6-year follow-up and prediction of time to remission. American Journal of Psychiatry, 161, 2108–2114. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.161.11.2108 Google Scholar
Zanarini, M. C., Frankenburg, F. R., Hennen, J., Reich, D. B., & Silk, K. R. (2005). The McLean Study of Adult Development (MSAD): Overview and implications of the first six years of prospective follow-up. Journal of Personality Disorders, 19, 505–523. doi:10.1521/pedi.2005.19.5.505 Google Scholar
Zanarini, M. C., Frankenburg, F. R., Hennen, J., & Silk, K. R. (2003). The longitudinal course of borderline psychopathology: 6-year prospective follow-up of the phenomenology of borderline personality disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 160, 274–283. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.160.2.274 Google Scholar
Zanarini, M. C., Frankenburg, F. R., Khera, G. S., & Bleichmar, J. (2001). Treatment histories of borderline inpatients. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 42, 144–150. doi:10.1053/comp.2001.19749 Google Scholar
Zanarini, M. C., Frankenburg, F. R., Vujanovic, A. A., Hennen, J., Reich, D. B., & Silk, K. R. (2004). Axis II comorbidity of borderline personality disorder: Description of 6-year course and prediction to time-to-remission. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 110, 416–420. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0447.2004.00362.x Google Scholar
Zanarini, M. C., Frankenburg, F. R., Weingeroff, J. L., Reich, D. B., Fitzmaurice, G. M., & Weiss, R. D. (2011). The course of substance use disorders in patients with borderline personality disorder and Axis II comparison subjects: A 10-year follow-up study. Addiction, 106, 342–348. doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2010.03176.x Google Scholar
Zanarini, M. C., Yong, L., Frankenburg, F. R., Hennen, J., Reich, D. B., Marino, M. F., & Vujanovic, A. A. (2002). Severity of reported childhood sexual abuse and its relationship to severity of borderline psychopathology and psychosocial impairment among borderline inpatients. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 190, 381–387. doi:10.1097/01.nmd.0000018963.57744.7e Google Scholar
Zimmerman, M., & Mattia, J. I. (1999). Axis I diagnostic comorbidity and borderline personality disorder. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 40, 245–252. doi:10.1016/S0010-440X(99)90123-2 Google Scholar