Earth and Environmental Science Transactions of The Royal Society of Edinburgh

Calathopteris heterophylla gen. et sp. nov. is described from a single petrified stem found in a loose block at Oxroad Bay, East Lothian. It is approximately 17 cm long and 2 cm diameter, being clothed with the swollen bases of incomplete petioles, many reflexed, and arranged in a dense 2/5 phyllotactic spiral. In most petioles the vascular bundle becomes U-shaped in transverse section with six abaxial mesarch lobes. Other leaf-traces divide in the inner cortex to form three concentric xylem strands which differentiate as they pass outward to form a median triarch bundle flanked by two tetrarch bundles. The stem possesses a medullated stele in which short wide tracheids occur in the medulla. Similarities between the petioles and those of Calathospermum fimbriatum Barnard are pointed out while those with three bundles were probably trichotomous (and ?microsporangiate) like Diplopteridium teilianum Walton.

The trilobite fauna of the basal Didymograptus superstes Mudstones (Nemagraptus gracilis zone) at Aldons Quarry is described. The fauna is large, consisting of 68 species, of which 12 are new, belonging to 47 genera. The fauna bears a much closer resemblance to that of the Albany mudstones than to that of the platy upper Stinchar Limestone: this is attributed to environmental control. The strong North American stamp of Barr Group faunas is at a maximum: Stenoblepharum, Raymondella, Chomatopyge and Miraspis appear for the first time in the Girvan District.

Twenty-eight specimens of the seed genus Dolichosperma have been examined. Fourteen are assigned to D. sexangulatum Long; these possess six or seven integumental lobes which extend apically as free tentacles equal in length to the seed body except when damaged or broken off. Fourteen other specimens are named D. pentagonum sp. nov. These are smaller and usually have five integumental lobes (less commonly six or seven). Long apical tentacles have not been seen in this species.

Evidence is adduced that Anasperma burnense Long is the mature prothallial seed developed from the ovule Eurystoma trigona Long.

Eurystoma angulare Long sometimes possesses five integumental lobes and the free apical lobes vary in length.

Compressed megaspores macerated from cupules of Stamnostoma huttonense Long sometimes have three abortive spores in a compact group at the apex.

Ovules of Eccroustosperma langtonense Long were borne in small bunches (probably pendent) on short pedicels; one specimen of this seed shows three well-developed separate abortive spores around the apex of the functional megaspore.

The cupule of Calathospermum fimbriatum Barnard shows a structure suggesting that it may have evolved from a pair of cupules. Twelve to fourteen ovules were sometimes formed in the entire cupule though most of these were probably abortive.

Some possible seed embryos are described and discussed, and an outline classification of seeds in the order Lagenostomales is proposed.

A structural profile has been constructed for part of the Caledonian fold belt from a map of the Dalradian rocks of the Loch Awe District of Argyllshire. The profile includes the Loch Awe Syncline (Bailey 1913) and the root to the Tay Nappe (Shackleton 1958). The Loch Awe Syncline is shown to be a compound syncline of F1 age, congruent with the Tay Nappe. The F1 structures are accompanied by a penetrative deformation and modified by secondary structures. The stratigraphic succession, which includes the Upper Dalradian and part of the Middle Dalradian, has been reconstructed from the profiles and is shown to have originally been about 10 km thick. The prominent features are the development of a basin to the south-east of the present area in the Late Pre-Cambrian and the extrusion of a 2 km thick basic submarine lava pile in Lower Cambrian times. A subsequent basic submarine lava sequence was extruded in Late Lower Cambrian or Middle Cambrian time and represents the topmos lithostratigraphic group yet recorded from the Dalradian of S.W. Argyll.

Karyograms prepared from ovarian and blastoderm cells of the parthenogenetic Australian Brown Vegetable Weevil demonstrate a consistent triploid condition with 30 chromosomes which can be grouped into 10 sets of homologues. Meiosis is replaced by a single mitotic-like division in which 30 univalent chromosomes, each composed of two chromatids, divide equationally between an ootid nucleus and a single polar nucleus. Prior to the differentiation of the oocytes a peculiar bouquet stage occurs in the cells of the end chamber of each ovariole, but the significance of this phase is not known. Arrested development in eggs from individuals of low fertility is investigated and the relationship of body size and chromosome number is discussed.

Psalixochlaena berwickense sp. nov. is described from specimens found in the Cementstone Group of Berwickshire. The incomplete fossils consist of short cylindrical stems, 0·7–1·5 mm diameter, and probably represent portions of one or more branching rhizomes. Attached petioles have not been seen but one detached fragment shows a resemblance in structure to the petioles of P. cylindrica (Williamson) Holden. Branching of the stem is by trifurcate laterals and this distinguishes it from P. cylindrica but bears a superficial resemblance to Rowleya trifurcata Long.

Alderia modesta (class Gastropoda, order Sacoglossa) has a central nervous system of a type common in the Stiligeridae and Limapontiidae. The visceral loop is short and bears two ganglia, the abdominal and supra-intestinal.

Medio-dorsal bodies, probably neurosecretory in function, are present on the cerebral ganglia. They were also found in eight other species of Sacoglossa and latero-dorsal bodies were noted in Oxynoe viridis (Pease) and Lobiger viridis (Pease).

Dissections of sixteen species of Sacoglossa showed that the order may be arranged on the length of the visceral loop and the number of ganglia on it. The evolution of medio-dorsal bodies is discussed.

Morphological examination of 56 specimens of Parka decipiens suggests that the thallus was dorsiventral with a many layered ventral cell-layer bearing dorsal sporangia originating from both the margin of the thallus and the underlying tissue. A disc-like holdfast is present, suggesting that at maturity Parka was attached to some substrate. Mathematical simulations of growth suggest that sporangia were produced by lateral proliferation of cells, while simulations of the frequency of cell dichotomy indicate that the order of sporangial packing on the dorsal surface is consistent with an underlying pseudoparenchyma. Latex replicas indicate the presence of filament dichotomy and corroborate to some extent the presence of a pseudoparenchyma. Intercalated, anticlinal cell divisions are demonstrated mathematically. Ontogenetic reconstructions of Parka suggest a similarity to the extant green algal genus Coleochaete. Growth stages of Coleochaete in their early stages of development are similar to the fossil Pachytheca, while mathematical and chemical comparison of Pachytheca with those of Parka suggest either a phylogenetic or ontogentic interpretation.

The genus Cordulegaster is represented in Sicily by two species. From an examination of material recently collected there and from evidence in the literature it is concluded that one has previously been misidentified, here named C. boltonii trinacriae ssp. nov.: the other is the little-known C. bidentatus sicilicus Fraser, 1929. A key to males of the Old World species of Cordulegaster is provided and lectotypes for C. boltonii algiricus Morton, C. princeps Morton, C. insignis amasinus Morton, C. insignis nobilis Morton, C. coronatus Morton and a neotype for C. charpentieri (Kolenati) are designated.

Various types of trilobite exoskeletal sculpture are described and referred to a simple classification. Thin-section and surface examination of many such sculptural features shows them to be remnants of distinct cuticular organelles, which probably had a sensory function. The supposed sensory structures of well-preserved specimens of Phacops rana (Green) are described in detail and their presumed specific functions considered. Mapping sensilla distribution over the Phacops rana dorsal exoskeleton shows a distinctive pattern conveniently divisible into nine inferred sensory fields with the densest sensory concentrations on the head and margins of the dorsal shield.

Conclusions on the importance of these sensory fields in mediating the trilobite's behaviour are combined with evidence from general morphology, palaeocology and evolutionary trends to suggest that Phacops rana was an active benthonic animal with a dual trophic capability lending considerable flexibility in adaptive radiation.

The P. rana hypostomal suture, consisting of two short coplanar lateral branches, is described for the first time, indicating that the hypostoma had considerable freedom of movement, possibly connected with ingestion of bulky food.

The stem, Buteoxylon gordonianum gen. et sp. nov. was found in stratified ash-beds at Oxroad Bay, near Tantallon Castle. It consists of a terminal region, about 12 cm in length surrounded by 38 petioles borne at acute angles on the stem in a ⅖ phyllotactic spiral. The stelar anatomy resembles that of a Calamopitys with a mixed pith. The petiolar bundles, however, have a distinctive T-shape in cross-section unlike any known species of Calamopitys.

Associated with this fossil stem are numerous seeds of Tantallosperma setigera gen. et sp. nov. These are radially symmetrical, with four (rarely five or six) integumental lobes joined at grooves on the body of the seed but free apically where they bear numerous bristle-like hairs. The funnel-shaped salpinx is only slightly narrower than the lagenostome. Enclosed spherical pollen grains have a trilete mark and measure 60 μ in diameter. The average dimensions of the seeds are 5·9 × 1·1 mm.

Rowleya trifurcata gen. et sp. nov. is described from specimens discovered in coal-balls from the Union Mine of Burnley, Lancashire. It consists of slender cylindrical axes (0·3–1·4 mm diam.) branched at long intervals by anisotomous dichotomies. Often three closely consecutive dichotomies produce a lateral trifurcation in which one or both outer branches have been arrested in growth. These bear one or two pairs of vascularised tapering appendages interpreted as ‘leaves’. Main axes usually possess a tetrarch solid strand of primary xylem somewhat like certain branches of Stauropteris. Slightly smaller axes often have a triarch strand of primary xylem triangular in cross-section. Backwardly directed branches are occasionally borne above a trifurcation and opposite a pair of ‘leaves’.

Rowleya trifurcata is associated with Psalixochlaena cylindrica and Botryopteris hirsuta. Its closest affinities seem to be with Stauropteris and Psilotum.

New collections of Zosterophyllum myretonianum Penhallow have been made at a number of localities in the Lower Old Red Sandstone of Scotland. For the first time, details of the fructification are recorded and incorporated into an emended diagnosis of the species. A comparison with the remaining species of Zosterophyllum indicates that sporangial and stalk characteristics are most important in delimiting Z. myretonianum. Tentative explanations for the wide variation in the overall morphology of the fructifications are put forward.

The stratigraphy of the Old Red Sandstone between Latheron and Brough in north-eastern Caithness has been revised. Stratigraphical subdivision in this area is primarily based on variations in lithology but is supported by the recognition of distinct faunal assemblages. The terms Wick Flagstone and Thurso Flagstone are discarded both as Group and Formation names and in their place type sequences different from those given by the Survey are proposed on the basis of the more continuous exposure seen between Ellens Goe and Latheron in eastern Caithness and in the Ham/Scarfskerry area of northern Caithness. The revision has been facilitated by an analysis of the structure of the area which suggests that a variable c. east-west compression has been the dominant controlling factor in the development of the structure of Caithness.

As a result of the revision the position of the Achanarras Fish Bed is now clear. The Passage Beds Group is no longer considered a meaningful subdivision as it is partly overlain by and partly overlies this Fish Bed. The John o' Groats Sandstone Group is thought to probably overlie the Caithness Flagstones conformably.

The following major stratigraphical subdivisions are recognised:

D. John o' Groats Sandstone Group.

C. Upper Caithness Flagstone Group

(c) Mey Subgroup

(b) Ham-Scarfskerry Subgroup

(a) Latheron Subgroup.

B. Lower Caithness Flagstone Group (position of Achanarras Fish Bed)

(d) Robbery Head Subgroup

(c) Lybster Subgroup

(b) Hillhead Red Bed Subgroup

(a) Clyth Subgroup.

A. Sarclet Group.

A typographical device is used for formal description of formations and groups whose boundaries are truncated by faults.

The zoning found in ore deposits is dominantly of two distinctive types: that in syngenetic sedimentary deposits, like the Kupferschiefer, and that in common hydrothermal deposits of either epigenetic or syngenetic characteristics. Here, epigenetic hydrothermal deposits include those commonly classified as vein, porphyry copper, contact metasomatic, and Mississippi Valley deposits; the syngenetic hydrothermal deposits are conformable, massive ores such as at Rammelsberg. The two zoning sequences, beginning nearest the source of the metals, are: in hydrothermal deposits, Fe—Ni—Sn—Cu—Zn—Pb—Ag—Au—Sb—Hg, and in sedimentary deposits, Cu—Ag—Pb—Zn.

A zoning sequence represents the natural order of increasing solubilities of the metallic sulphides and other minerals in ore-forming solutions. Comparison of zoning sequences with relative solubilities in proposed ore solutions provides a rigorous test of the efficacy of such solutions. When corrected for relative metal concentrations (mass-action effect), then both theoretically predicted, and experimental relative solubilities of sulphide complexes match precisely the order of hydrothermal zoning. The order in sedimentary zoning is identical to the mass-action-corrected calculation of the sequence in which sulphides must precipitate from solutions containing metallic ions or weak chloride or hydroxyl complexes. The consanguinity of these correlations imply (1) that hydrothermal zoning is the product of deposition from sulphide complexes, and (2) that chloride complexes may be the metal-transporting agent in sedimentary deposits.

This paper provides a comprehensive account of the distribution of miospore species which are considered to be stratigraphically significant in the Dinantian (Calciferous Sandstone Measures and Lower Limestone Group) of the Midland Valley of Scotland. Five miospore concurrent range zones are recognised in these beds:

Tripartites vetustus—Rotaspora fracta (VF) Zone

Raistrickia nigra—Triquitrites marginatus (NM) Zone

Perotrilites tessellatus—Schulzospora campyloptera (TC) Zone

Lycospora pusilla (Pu) Zone

Schopfites claviger—Auroraspora macra (CM) Zone

The distribution of these zones in the sections studied provides a method of correlation in a series of rocks, which are largely of non-marine origin and notable for their lack of stratigraphically useful macrofossils and for marked variations in facies and thickness. The zones have also been proved in sections of Lower Carboniferous rocks in the Northumbrian trough, thereby providing a potential method of correlation between the two areas.

Two new genera, Colatisporites and Biannulatisphaerites, are described and one Tricidarisporites emended. Fifteen new species and one new type are described, three species recombined and three emended. Representative assemblages of the miospore zones are illustrated.

Cytological results are presented for 60 taxa of Jamaican ferns which supplement information obtained from an earlier survey (Walker 1966). A number of hybrids which form local populations and which may be mistaken for fertile species are described and illustrated. Some species complexes are examined and shown to be more extensive than previously thought. The results presented here are examined in the light of the findings of the earlier survey.

Holocene carbonates rest unconformably on Lewisian gneiss in an almost land-locked bay sheltered from Atlantic waves by sand dunes: frosts are rare and cockles, the dominant species, may reach 16 years of age. Five intertidal zones are recognised: algal mat, Arenicola sand, Cardium shell sand, Lanice sand, Ensis sand. Transgressive shellbanks composed solely of cockles and linguoid in form, are advancing over the Arenicola sand towards the shore, earlier seaward positions being indicated by hard-packed areas of shell pavement. Comparison of 1973 positions with those on aerial photographs taken in 1965 demonstrates a maximum transgression of 150 m over the past eight years, but in 1948 banks were smaller and most material was onshore as a chenier.

Different age-groups are dominant in different parts of the beach: young cockles high on the shore; older, partially epifaunal individuals towards low water. In any one age-group shell height is inversely related to distance from LWM. By analysing the age and growth of dead shells from the banks it is possible to estimate where they originated, and thus how much post-mortem transport they have suffered. In the centre of the bay banks receive 90 per cent of their shells from seaward, the maximum distance travelled being 400 m.

During westerly gales adult cockles living high on the shore are blown seawards, though young forms escape by speedier burrowing. This, together with the concentration of oystercatcher predation on small individuals from the more emergent parts of the bay, probably explains why older animals are more abundant on the lower reaches of the shore.

Feeding oystercatchers leave many conjoined valves of Cardium on the sediment surface which roll in easily with the tide and replenish the shellbanks. The valves are rarely damaged, though gulls shatter shells by dropping them onto hard areas of pavement. In calm conditions shoreward flotation of both fragments and single valves is important: banks are high and narrow, and accrete by avalanche co-sets of haphazardly arranged whole valves. In stormy conditions much comminuted shell sand is blown onto the beach from the dunes: banks are more spread out, and the shell fabric locally becomes vertically imbricate in response to directly opposed wave systems generated by refraction around the banks.

The Riccarton and Raeberry Castle beds in Kirkcudbrightshire have hitherto been regarded as Wenlock in age, and the Hawick Rocks as Llandovery. Detailed mapping and revision of the graptolite faunas shows that the Raeberry Castle beds are Llandovery and the Riccarton beds Wenlock in age. On structural evidence the Hawick Rocks south of Kirkcudbright are considered to be younger than the Riccarton beds. The Riccarton beds in the area are formally defined as the Ross Formation and the Raeberry Castle beds as the Raeberry Castle Formation. Directional data suggest that the sediment forming the Raeberry Castle Formation was derived from the west and the sediment forming the Ross Formation and Hawick Rocks was derived from the north-east.

Detailed mapping and accurate heighting reveal the extent of a well-preserved terrace system whose highest fragments lie c. 40 m above contemporary stream level. Kame terraces, pitted outwash terraces, terraces dissected by braided rivers and fan terraces are identified. The terrace fragments form a valley train whose uppermost levels were produced when glacier ice was still present in the glen. As successive streams readjusted to postglacial hydrological conditions, they excavated the valley fill of glacial deposits and carved out the terraces. It is inferred that subsequent stream discharges were generally smaller than those associated with deglaciation at the end of the period of ice sheet wastage. Areally extensive, heavily dissected, low level terraces are suggested to have been produced by meltwaters from a later deglaciation at the end of Zone III.