1. N. Deerr
(1949–50) History of Sugar, 2 vols
(London: Chapman and Hall) which contains a surprising number of inaccuracies
despite its impressive geographical range and botanical knowledge, and deserves to
be replaced; E. v. Lippmann (1929) Geschichte
des Zuckers, 2nd edn (Stuttgart); also my own preliminary thoughts in
D. Abulafia (1998) Zucker, -rohr, Lexikon des
Mittelalters (Munich: Lexma) 19(3) cols.
679–82 and, with an emphasis on Sicily and Valencia, D. Abulafia (2000)
La produzione dello zucchero nei domini della Corona d’Aragona. In: G.
Rossetti and G. Vitolo (eds) Medioevo Mezzogiorno
Mediterraneo: studi in onore di Mario del Treppo, 2 vols (Naples:
Liguori) 2, 105–119. But all these have
been surpassed by the encyclopaedic study of M. Ouerfelli (2008) Le sucre: production, commercialisation et usages dans la
Méditerranée médiévale
(Leiden: Brill).
2.Mintz, S. W.
(1985) Sweetness and Power: the Place of
Sugar in Modern History. (New York:
Penguin Books).
3. F.
Fernández-Armesto (1982) The Canary
Islands after the Conquest (Oxford: Clarendon Press), distinguishes
himself on this basis from the assumptions of C. Verlinden conveniently gathered
together in: C. Verlinden (1970) The Beginnings of Modern
Colonization (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press).
4. This is the strongly-held
opinion of Ouerfelli (2008); for revisionist views of the role of
slavery in the Atlantic sugar industry as well, cf. H. Klein (2004) The Atlantic
slave trade to 1650. In: S. Schwartz (ed.) Tropical
Babylons: Sugar and the Making of the Atlantic World,
1450–1680 (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina
Press), pp. 201–236 and J. J. McCusker and R. R. Menard (2004) The sugar
industry in the seventeenth century: a new perspective on the Barbadian
‘Sugar Revolution’. In: S. Schwartz (ed.) Tropical Babylons: Sugar and the Making of the Atlantic World,
1450–1680 (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina
Press), pp. 289–330.
5. Cf. the debates about
Sicilian sugar: C. Trasselli (1982) Storia
dello Zucchero siciliano (Caltanissetta: Sciascia); H. Bresc (1986)
Un monde méditerranéen:
économie et société en Sicile
(1300–1450), 2 vols (Rome and Palermo: École
Française de Rome and Accademia di Arti Scienze e Lettere di Palermo); S.
R. Epstein (1992) An Island for Itself: Economic Development
and Social Change in Late Medieval Sicily (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press; Italian edition 1996: Potere e mercanti in
Sicilia, Turin: Einaudi).
6. N. Deerr
(1949–50) History of Sugar, 2 vols
(London: Chapman and Hall), 1, pp.
68–72; W. D. Phillps Jr (2004) Sugar in Iberia. In: S.
Schwartz (ed.) Tropical Babylons: Sugar and the Making of
the Atlantic World, 1450–1680 (Chapel Hill, NC: University
of North Carolina Press), pp. 28–29.
7. A. Watson
(1983) Agricultural Innovation in the Early
Islamic World (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press), p. 26; M.
Ouerfelli (2008) Le sucre: production, commercialisation et
usages dans la Méditerranée
médiévale (Leiden: Brill), pp.
15–30.
8. N. Deerr
(1949–50) History of
Sugar, 2 vols (London: Chapman and Hall), 1, p. 74.
9. A. Watson
(1983) Agricultural Innovation in the Early
Islamic World (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press), p. 28;
al-Idrisi (1866) Description de l’Afrique et de
l’Espagne, R. Dozy and M. J. de Goeje (eds) (Leiden), pp.
51–53, 177, 180, 187.
10. N. Deerr
(1949–50) History of Sugar, 2 vols
(London: Chapman and Hall), 1, p. 87; A. Watson
(1983) Agricultural Innovation in the Early
Islamic World (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press), p. 28; M.
Ouerfelli (2008) Le sucre: production, commercialisation et
usages dans la Méditerranée
médiévale (Leiden: Brill), pp.
31–140.
11.Watson, A.
(1983) Agricultural Innovation in the Early
Islamic World (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press), pp.
28–29.
12.Fábregas García, A.
(2000) Producción y comercio de
azúcar en el Mediterráneo medieval: el ejemplo del reino
de Granada (Granada:
Universidad de Granada), pp. 86–88.
13. Extract in ibn al-Awam
(1979) A Moorish Calendar,
transl. P. Lord (Wantage: Black Swan Press), p. 16; also cited at greater length by
N. Deerr (1949–50) History of Sugar, 2
vols (London: Chapman and Hall) 1, pp.
80–81; also see A. Watson (1983) Agricultural
Innovation in the Early Islamic World (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press), p. 29; for the operations of Italian merchants in this region,
see F. Melis (1956) Málaga nel sistema economico del XIV e XV secolo,
Economia e Storia, 3, 19–59, 139–163, reprinted in: F. Melis (1976)
Mercaderes italianos en España
(investigaciones sobre su correspondencia y su contabilidad)
(Seville: Universidad de Sevilla), pp. 3–65.
14.Gual Camarena, M.
(1976) Vocabulario del comercio
medieval, 2nd edn
(Barcelona: Ediciones
Albir), pp. 433–434.
15. David Abulafia
(1987) Narbonne, the lands of the Crown of Aragon and the Levant trade
1187–1400, Montpellier, la Couronne
d’Aragon et les pays de Langue d’Oc
(1204–1349): actes du XII oCongrès d’Histoire de la Couronne
d’Aragon, Montpellier, 26–29 septembre
1985=Mémoires de la Société
archéologique de Montpellier, 15, 199–200.
16. See generally David
Abulafia (1997) in D. Agius and I. R. Netton (eds) The impact of the
Orient: economic interactions between East and West in the medieval Mediterranean,
Across the Mediterranean Frontiers: Trade, Politics and
Religion, 650–1450 (Turnhout: Brepols), pp.
1–40.
17.Ashtor, E.
(1981) Levantine sugar industry in the
late Middle Ages: a case of technological decline. In: A. L.
Udovitch (ed.) The Islamic Middle East, 700–1900
(Princeton, NJ: Princeton
University Press), pp.
91–132.
18.Ouerfelli, M.
(2008) Le sucre: production,
commercialisation et usages dans la Méditerranée
médiévale
(Leiden: Brill), pp.
141–228.
19. F. B. Pegolotti
(1936) La pratica della
mercatura, A. Evans (ed.) (Cambridge MA: Mediaeval Academy of America).
20. N. Deerr
(1949–50) History of
Sugar, 2 vols (London: Chapman and Hall), pp. 83–86.
21.Bresc, H.
(1972) Les jardins de
Palerme, Mélanges d’Histoire et
d’Archéologie de l’École
française de Rome – Moyen Âge,
74,
55–127, for the later evolution
of Palermo’s gardens and their agricultural importance.
22.Abulafia, D.
(1988) Frederick II: a Medieval
Emperor (London: Allen
Lane), p. 336.
23. Text in C. Trasselli
(1982) Storia dello Zucchero
siciliano (Caltanissetta: Sciascia), pp. 176–179.
24.Ouerfelli, M.
(2008) Le sucre: production,
commercialisation et usages dans la Méditerranée
médiévale
(Leiden: Brill), pp.
503–568.
25. C. Trasselli
(1982) Storia dello Zucchero
siciliano (Caltanissetta: Sciascia), pp. 80–81; A. Watson
(1983) Agricultural Innovation in the Early Islamic
World (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press), pp. 45–46.
26. S. R. Epstein
(1992) An Island for Itself: Economic
Development and Social Change in Late Medieval Sicily (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press; Italian edition 1996: Potere e
mercanti in Sicilia, Turin: Einaudi), pp. 210–212.
27.Trasselli, C.
(1982) Storia dello Zucchero
siciliano (Caltanissetta:
Sciascia), p. 92.
28.Trasselli, C.
(1982) Storia dello Zucchero
siciliano (Caltanissetta:
Sciascia), p. 139.
29.Marinescu, C.
(1959) Les affaires commerciales en
Flandres d’Alphonse V d’Aragon, roi de
Naples, Revue Historique,
221, 45, doc. 4.
30. A. Schulte
(1923) Geschichte der Großen
Ravensburger Handelsgesellschaft, 3 vols (Stuttgart/Berlin: Deutsche
Verlagsanstalt) 3, 518–521.
31. A. Schulte
(1923) Geschichte der Großen
Ravensburger Handelsgesellschaft, 3 vols (Stuttgart/Berlin: Deutsche
Verlagsanstalt) 2, p. 172.
32. A. Schulte
(1923) Geschichte der Großen
Ravensburger Handelsgesellschaft, 3 vols (Stuttgart/Berlin: Deutsche
Verlagsanstalt) 3, doc. 31 (iii) p. 232.
33. A. Schulte
(1923) Geschichte der Großen
Ravensburger Handelsgesellschaft, 3 vols (Stuttgart/Berlin: Deutsche
Verlagsanstalt) 3, doc. 31 (v) p. 233; see also
2, p. 175.
34. See for example A. Schulte
(1923) Geschichte der Großen
Ravensburger Handelsgesellschaft, 3 vols (Stuttgart/Berlin: Deutsche
Verlagsanstalt) 3, doc. 31 (vii) p. 234; for the
cloth trade, and A. Schulte (1923) Geschichte der
Großen Ravensburger Handelsgesellschaft, 3 vols
(Stuttgart/Berlin: Deutsche Verlagsanstalt) 3, doc.
33, pp. 235–237. An overview of Valencian trade through the Ravensburg
merchants is provided in A. Schulte (1923) Geschichte der
Großen Ravensburger Handelsgesellschaft, 3 vols
(Stuttgart/Berlin: Deutsche Verlagsanstalt) 2, pp.
181–187.
35.Guiral-Hadziïossif, J.
(1986) Valence, port
méditerranéen au XVe siècle
(1410–1525) (Paris:
Publications de la Sorbonne), pp.
327–328.
36. This person must be a
member of a family of sugar makers who appear earlier in the 15th century; see G.
Camarena (1976) Vocabulario del comercio
medieval, 2nd edn (Barcelona: Ediciones Albir), p. 434, who refers to
R. Chabás Llorens (1886–7) La cosecha de azúcar en
el reino de Valencia. El Archivo (Denia)
1, pp. 43–44, 53–54,
59–61.
37. He is described as
‘mercader Alemany mercantilvolment resident en Valencia axi com a regent
la gran companyie de micer Jous Ompis’: A. Schulte (1923)
Geschichte der Großen Ravensburger
Handelsgesellschaft, 3 vols (Stuttgart/Berlin: Deutsche
Verlagsanstalt) 2, p. 173; 3, doc. 159, p. 519.
38. A. Schulte
(1923) Geschichte der Großen
Ravensburger Handelsgesellschaft, 3 vols (Stuttgart/Berlin: Deutsche
Verlagsanstalt) 2, pp. 173, 177–178;
3, doc. 159, pp. 518–521; also
printed in German in E. Schmitt and C. Verlinden (eds) (1986) Die mittelalterliche Ursprünge der
europäischen Expansion: Dokumente zur Geschichte der
europäischen Expansion (Munich) doc. 30, pp.
169–72.
39. A. Schulte
(1923) Geschichte der Großen
Ravensburger Handelsgesellschaft, 3 vols (Stuttgart/Berlin: Deutsche
Verlagsanstalt) 3, doc. 159, p. 519.
40. A. Schulte
(1923) Geschichte der Großen
Ravensburger Handelsgesellschaft, 3 vols (Stuttgart/Berlin: Deutsche
Verlagsanstalt) 3, doc. 159, p. 520.
41.Meyerson, M.
(1991) The Muslims of Valencia in the Reign
of Fernando and Isabel (Berkeley and Los
Angeles: University of California
Press).
42.Trasselli, C.
(1982) Storia dello Zucchero
siciliano (Caltanissetta:
Sciascia), pp. 84–85.
43. A. Schulte
(1923) Geschichte der Großen
Ravensburger Handelsgesellschaft, 3 vols (Stuttgart/Berlin: Deutsche
Verlagsanstalt) 3, doc. 159, p. 520.
44. A. Schulte
(1923) Geschichte der Großen
Ravensburger Handelsgesellschaft, 3 vols (Stuttgart/Berlin: Deutsche
Verlagsanstalt) 3, doc. 159, pp.
520–521.
45. A. Schulte
(1923) Geschichte der Großen
Ravensburger Handelsgesellschaft, 3 vols (Stuttgart/Berlin: Deutsche
Verlagsanstalt) 2, p. 173.
46. E. Schmitt and C.
Verlinden (eds) (1986) Die mittelalterliche
Ursprünge der europäischen Expansion: Dokumente zur
Geschichte der europäischen Expansion (Munich) doc. 33,
pp. 177–9.
47. A. Schulte
(1923) Geschichte der Großen
Ravensburger Handelsgesellschaft, 3 vols (Stuttgart/Berlin: Deutsche
Verlagsanstalt) 3, doc. 8, p. 105.
48.Harvey, L. P.
(1991) Islamic Spain,
1250–1500 (Chicago:
University of Chicago Press), pp.
70–73.
49.Verlinden, C.
(1970) The Beginnings of Modern
Colonization (Ithaca, NY:
Cornell University Press), pp. 20, 102.
50.Trasselli, C.
(1982) Storia dello Zucchero
siciliano (Caltanissetta:
Sciascia), pp. 243–244.
51. A. Fábregas
García (2000) Producción
y comercio de azúcar en el Mediterráneo medieval: el
ejemplo del reino de Granada (Granada: Universidad de Granada), pp.
258–259.
52.Fábregas García, A.
(2000) Producción y comercio de
azúcar en el Mediterráneo medieval: el ejemplo del reino
de Granada (Granada:
Universidad de Granada), p. 260.
53. J. Heers
(1957) Le royaume de Grenade et la politique marchande de
Gênes en Occident (XVe siècle). Le
Moyen Âge, 63, p. 109; A.
Fábregas García (2000) Producción y comercio de azúcar en el
Mediterráneo medieval: el ejemplo del reino de Granada
(Granada: Universidad de Granada), p. 274.
54. J. Heers
(1957) Le royaume de Grenade et la politique marchande de
Gênes en Occident (XVe siècle). Le
Moyen Âge, 63, p. 109.
55.Fábregas García, A.
(2000) Producción y comercio de
azúcar en el Mediterráneo medieval: el ejemplo del reino
de Granada (Granada:
Universidad de Granada), pp.
113–114.
56.Heers, J.
(1957) Le royaume de Grenade et la
politique marchande de Gênes en Occident (XVe
siècle), Le Moyen Âge 63, 110–111.
57.Fábregas García, A.
(2000) Producción y comercio de
azúcar en el Mediterráneo medieval: el ejemplo del reino
de Granada (Granada: Universidad de Granada), p. 263 [table].
58.Fábregas García, A.
(2000) Producción y comercio de
azúcar en el Mediterráneo medieval: el ejemplo del reino
de Granada (Granada:
Universidad de Granada), p. 116.
59.Ashtor, E.
(1981) Levantine sugar industry in the
late Middle Ages: a case of technological decline. In: A. L.
Udovitch (ed.) The Islamic Middle East, 700-1900
(Princeton, NJ: Princeton
University Press).
60. For the sugar of Madeira,
see V. Rau and J. de Macedo (1962) O
Açúcar da Madeira nos fins do século
XV (Lisbon and Funchal: Junta-Geral do Distrito Autónomo de
Funchal); R. Carita (1989) Historia da Madeira
(1420–1566): povoamento e produção
açucareira (Funchal: Governo Regional da Madeira). See
infra for the sugar plantations in southern Portugal; also C. Trasselli (1982)
Storia dello Zucchero siciliano
(Caltanissetta: Sciascia), pp. 250–251.
61.Vieira, A.
(2004) Sugar islands: the sugar economy of
Madeira and the Canaries, 1450–1650. In: S. Schwartz
(ed.) Tropical Babylons: Sugar and the Making of the Atlantic World,
1450–1680 (Chapel Hill,
NC: University of North Carolina
Press), p. 48.
62. On the trade of
Málaga see J. Heers (1957) Le royaume de Grenade et la
politique marchande de Gênes en Occident (XVe siècle).
Le Moyen Âge, 63, 87–121; R. Salicru i Lluch (1995)
El sultanat de Granada i la Corona
d’Aragó, 1410–1458 (Barcelona:
CSIC); B. Garí and R. Salicru i Lluch (1998) Las ciudades del triangulo:
Granada, Málaga, Almería y el comercio mediterráneo
de la Edad Media. In: D. Abulafia and B. Garí (eds) En las costas del Mediterráneo occidental: las ciudades
de la Península Ibérica y del reino de Mallorca y el
comercio mediterráneo en la Edad media (Barcelona: Omega),
pp. 171–211; A. Fábregas García (2000) Producción y comercio de azúcar en el
Mediterráneo medieval: el ejemplo del reino de Granada
(Granada: Universidad de Granada).
63. J. Marinho dos Santos
(1989) Os Açores nos
sécs. XV e XVI, 2 vols (Maia and São Miguel:
Universidade dos Açores) 1, pp.
301–302; R. Garfield (1992) A History of
São Tomé Island, 1470–1655: the Key to
Guinea (San Francisco CA: Edwin Mellen Press), pp. 62–87. .
64. J. W. Blake
(1942) Europeans in West Africa, 2
vols (London: Hakluyt Society) 1, doc. ix, pp.
86–87.
65. On the anti-Jewish
policies of João II and Manuel I see now F. Soyer (2007)
The Persecution of the Jews and Muslims of Portugal:
King Manuel I and the End of Religious Tolerance (Leiden: Brill). I
am very grateful to Dr Soyer for his advice on this point.
66.Aznar Vallejo, E.
(1981) Documentos canarios en el Registro del
Sello (1476–1517) (La
Laguna: Instituto de Estudios
Canarios) docs. 113, 368.
67. F.
Fernández-Armesto (1982) The Canary
Islands after the Conquest (Oxford: Clarendon Press), p. 167; E.
Aznar Vallejo (1983) La integración de las Islas
Canarias en la Corona de Castilla (Seville: Universidad de Sevilla),
pp. 260–264.
68. M. Ratekin
(1954) The early sugar industry in Española. Hispanic American Historical Review, 34, 1–19; Rodríguez Morel (2004)
The sugar economy of Española in the sixteenth century. In: S. Schwartz
(ed.) Tropical Babylons: Sugar and the Making of the
Atlantic World, 1450–1680 (Chapel Hill, NC: University of
North Carolina Press), p. 87.
69. M. Ouerfelli
(2008) Le sucre: production, commercialisation
et usages dans la Méditerranée
médiévale (Leiden: Brill), pp.
503–658; and more generally for evidence of economic expansion see M. del
Treppo (1958) I mercanti catalani e l’espansione
della Corona d’Aragona (Naples: L’Arte
Tipografica).
70. P. Iradiel
(1998) Valencia y la expansión mediterránea de la
Corona de Aragón. In D. Abulafia and B. Garí (eds) En las costas del Mediterráneo occidental: las ciudades
de la Península Ibérica y del reino de Mallorca y el
comercio mediterráneo en la Edad media (Barcelona: Omega),
pp. 154–169; and the valuable essays by Verlinden, Guiral, Mainoni,
Lapeyre and many others collected by A. Furió (1985) València, un mercat medieval (Valencia:
Diputació Provincial).
71. For later developments in
the Atlantic, see now S. Schwartz (ed.) (2004) Tropical Babylons: Sugar and the Making of the Atlantic World,
1450–1680 (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina
Press).
