¹ For more on this topic of legal literature in the United States or literature in English language comparing gender quotas in the United States and abroad, see Anne Peters, Women, Quotas and Constitutions: A Comparative Study of Affirmative Action for Women Under American, German, European Community and International Law (1999); Darren Rosenblum, Parity/Disparity: Electoral Gender Inequality on the Tightrope of Liberal Constitutional Traditions, 39 U.C. Davis L. Rev. 1119 (2006); Darren Rosenblum, Feminizing Capital: A Corporate Imperative, 6 Berkeley Bus. L.J. 55 (2009); Julie C. Suk, Gender Parity and State Legitimacy: From Public Office to Corporate Boards, 10 Int'l J. Const. L. 449 (2012); Nadia Urbinati, Why Parité is a Better Goal Than Quotas, 10 Int'l J. Const. L. 465 (2012); Véronique Magnier & Darren Rosenblum, Quotas and the Transatlantic Divergence of Corporate Governance, 34 Nw. J. Int'l L. & Bus. 249 (2014).Google Scholar

² Rubio-Marín, Ruth, A New European Parity-Democracy Sex Equality Model and Why It Won't Fly in the United States, 60 Am. J. Comp. L. 99 (2012).Google Scholar

³ On the general literature on women's quotas (in politics) and their global spread, see, e.g., Women, Quotas and Politics (Drude Dahlrup ed., 2006); Mona Lena Krook, Quotas for Women in Politics. Gender and Candidate Selection Worldwide (2009); The Impact of Gender Quotas (Susana Franceschet, Mona Lena Krook & Jennifer M. Piscopo eds., 2012); Eléonore Lépinard, Gender Quotas and Transformative Politics (RSCAS Policy Paper No. 6, 2014).Google Scholar

⁴ More specifically on gender quotas in France in English beyond some of the references indicated supra note 1, see Rainbow Murray, Parity in France: A ‘Dual Track’ Solution to Women's Under-Representation, 35 West Eur. Politics 343 (2012); more specifically on gender quotas in Italy in English, see Elisabetta Palici Di Suni, Gender Parity and Quotas in Italy: A Convoluted Reform Process, 35 West Eur. Politics 380 (2012).Google Scholar

⁵ Both countries have introduced quotas for some types of companies. For France: Law no. 2011-103 of Jan. 27, 2011, J.O., Jan. 28, 2011. p. 1680 (concerning the balanced representation of women and men on corporate boards and professional equality); for Italy: Law July 12, 2011, no. 120, G.U., July 28, 2011, no. 174 (concerning equal access to corporate boards of publicly listed companies). The European Commission is still debating the introduction of a similar instrument Europe-wide, Commission Proposal for a Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council on Improving the Gender Balance Among Non-Executive Directors of Companies Listed on Stock Exchanges and Related Measures, COM (2012) 0614 final (Nov. 14, 2012).Google Scholar

⁶ Rubio-Marín, supra note 2.Google Scholar

⁷ See Ruiz, Blanca Rodríguez & Rubio-Marín, Ruth, The Gender of Representation: On Democracy, Equality, and Parity, 6 Int'l J. Const. L. 287 (2008), and, in particular, on France and Italy at 290–96.Google Scholar

⁸ Id. Google Scholar

⁹ Law Nov. 19, 1982, no. 82-974, J.O., Nov. 20, 1982, p. 3487.Google Scholar

¹⁰ D.L. 81/1993, G.U. Mar. 27, 1993, Supp., no. 72. Google Scholar

¹¹ On this point, see Rogoff, Martin A., French Constitutional Law: Cases and Materials 324 (2011).Google Scholar

¹² 1958 Const. [Constitution] Oct. 4, 1958 art. 3 (Fr.) (in the version in force at that time) provided that: “National sovereignty shall vest in the people, who shall exercise it through their representatives and by means of referendum. No section of the people nor any individual may arrogate to itself, or to himself, the exercise thereof. Suffrage may be direct or indirect as provided for by the Constitution. It shall always be universal, equal and secret. All French citizens of either sex who have reached their majority and are in possession of their civil and political rights may vote as provided for by statute.”Google Scholar

¹³ Declaration of the Right of Man and the Citizen, Aug. 26, 1789 art. 6 (France). This provision states: “All citizens, being equal in its eyes, shall be equally eligible to all high offices, public positions and employments, according to their ability, and without other distinction than that of their virtues and talents.”Google Scholar

¹⁴ Conseil constitutionnel [CC] (Constitutional Court) decision No. 82-146 DC, Nov. 18, 1982.Google Scholar

¹⁵ Conseil constitutionnel [CC] (Constitutional Court) decision No. 98-407 DC, Jan. 14, 1999.Google Scholar

¹⁶ In the version in force at that time, the relevant paragraph of 1958 Const. [Constitution] Oct. 4, 1958 art. 51 provided that: “Any citizen of either sex is eligible for public offices and elected positions on equal terms, according to the conditions established by law … .”Google Scholar

¹⁷ Corte Costituzionale (Corte Cost.) (Constitutional Court) [Hereinafter Corte Cost.], Sept. 12, 1995, no. 422, para. 3 (italics added).Google Scholar

¹⁸ Id., paras. 4–6.Google Scholar

¹⁹ Id., para. 7.Google Scholar

²⁰ See, e.g., Law Aug. 4, 1993, no. 277, G.U. Aug. 20, 1993, no. 195 (introducing a requirement that political parties must present electoral lists with alternating candidates from each sex for those seats in the lower chamber of Parliament that are subject to the proportionality system (i.e. at that time twenty-five percent)); Law Feb. 23, 1995, no. 43, G.U. Feb. 24, 1995, no. 46 (concerning the election of regional and provincial parliaments of ordinary regions which provided again that each electoral list for those institutions could not contain more than two-thirds of candidates of the same sex).Google Scholar

²¹ See, e.g., Law Feb. 25, 1992, no. 215, G.U. Mar. 7, 1992, no. 56 (establishing affirmative action measures for female entrepreneurs). See also Law Apr. 10, 1991, no. 125, G.U. Apr. 15, 1991, no. 88 (establishing affirmative action measures for equality between men and women at work).Google Scholar

²² See Corte Cost., Mar. 26, 1993, no. 109.Google Scholar

²³ D.L. 29/1993, G.U. Feb. 6, 1993, no. 30 (concerning the rationalization of the organization of public administration and the reordering of the framework of the civil service), especially art. 61, para. 1(a) and its subsequent modifications.Google Scholar

²⁴ Const. Law Jan. 31, 2001, no. 2, G.U. Feb. 1, 2001, no. 26 (concerning the direct election of the presidents of the regions with special status and of the autonomous provinces of Trento and Bolzano)’ available at: http://www.parlamento.it/parlam/leggi/01002lc.htm (last visited November 14, 2018) and Const. Law Oct. 18, 2001, no. 3, G.U. Oct. 24, 2001, no. 248 (modifying Title V of the second part of the Constitution), which amended Corte Cost art. 117 available at: http://www.gazzettaufficiale.it/atto/serie_generale/caricaDettaglioAtto/originario;jsessionid=o8HCVYOwo+Ru6dLdLB3XcQ__.ntc-as1-guri2a?atto.dataPubblicazioneGazzetta=2001-10-24&atto.codiceRedazionale=001G0430&elenco30giorni=false (last visited November 14, 2018).Google Scholar

²⁵ Const. Law May 30, 2003, no. 1, G.U. June 12, 2003, no. 134 (modifying Corte Cost. art. 51).Google Scholar

²⁶ Conseil constitutionnel [CC] (Constitutional Court) decision No. 2000-429 DC, para. 4., May 30, 2000.Google Scholar

²⁷ Id., paras. 7–8.Google Scholar

²⁸ Corte Cost., Feb. 19, 2003, no. 49.Google Scholar

²⁹ Id. at para. 4.Google Scholar

³⁰ Art. 3, para. 2 Constituzione [Cost.] (It.)Google Scholar

³¹ This is known as the Conseil supérieur de la magistrature. Google Scholar

³² Conseil constitutionnel [CC] (Constitutional Court) decision No. 2001-445 DC, June 19, 2001.Google Scholar

³³ Conseil constitutionnel [CC] (Constitutional Court) decision No. 2006-533 DC, para. 16, Mar. 16, 2006.Google Scholar

³⁴ More specifically it is para. 13 of the Preamble to the 1946 Constitution which states that “[t]he Nation guarantees equal access for children and adults to instruction, vocational training and culture.”Google Scholar

³⁵ Conseil constitutionnel [CC] (Constitutional Court) decision No. 2006-533 DC, para. 18, Mar. 16, 2006.Google Scholar

³⁶ Art. 1, para. 2 Constituzione [Cost.] (It.) (italics added).Google Scholar

³⁷ Sacco, Rodolfo, Legal Formants: A Dynamic Approach to Comparative Law (Installment I of II), 39 Am. J. Comp. L. 1 (1991); Rodolfo Sacco, Legal Formants: A Dynamic Approach to Comparative Law (Installment II of II), 39 Am. J. Comp. L. 343 (1991).Google Scholar

³⁸ Law no. 2001-397 of May 9, 2001, J.O., May 10, 2001, p. 7320 (concerning professional equality between women and men).Google Scholar

³⁹ Law no. 2006-340 of Mar. 23, 2006, J.O., Mar. 24, 2006, p. 4440 (concerning equal pay between women and men).Google Scholar

⁴⁰ Law no. 2011-103, supra note 5.Google Scholar

⁴¹ Law no. 2012-347 of Mar. 12, 2012, J.O., Mar. 13, 2012, p.4498.Google Scholar

⁴² Law no. 2014-873 of Aug. 4, 2014, J.O., Aug. 5, 2014, p. 12949 (concerning effective equality between men and women).Google Scholar

⁴³ See, e.g., Eur. Parl., Directorate-General for Internal Policies, Policy Department C: Citizen's Rights and Constitutional Affairs, The Policy on Gender Equality in France (PE510.024) (2015), http://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/IDAN/2015/510024/IPOL_IDA(2015)510024_EN.pdf (last visited May 24, 2017).Google Scholar

⁴⁴ See, e.g., Bui-Xuan, Olivia, L'égalité professionnelle entre hommes et femmes dans la fonction publique, AJDA 1100 (2012).Google Scholar

⁴⁵ See, e.g., Boucobza, Isabelle & Girard, Charlotte, La parité en politique. Le genre, un outil de pouvoir, in La loi et le genre. Etudes critiques de droit français 507–24 (Stéphanie Hennette-Vauchez, Marc Pichard & Diane Roman eds., 2014); Loi no. 2014-873 commentaire de la loi pour l'égalité réelle entre les femmes et les hommes du 4 août 2014, [Law 2014-873 of August 4, 2014, on the real equality between women and men], Recueil Dalloz 1895, 1902–03 (2014).Google Scholar

⁴⁶ See the latest example when the Council had to decide on the constitutionality of Law no. 2017-86 of Jan. 27, 2017, J.O., Jan. 28, 2017, no. 24 (concerning equality and citizenship) which contains a number of parities promoting measures in Conseil constitutionnel [CC] (Constitutional Court) decision No. 2016-745 DC, Jan. 26, 2017.Google Scholar

⁴⁷ Conseil constitutionnel [CC] (Constitutional Court) decision No. 2010-608 DC, June 24, 2010. The Economic, Social and Environmental Council is known as Conseil économique, social et environnemental and is a constitutional consultative assembly.Google Scholar

⁴⁸ Conseil constitutionnel [CC] (Constitutional Court) decision No. 2012-658 DC, para. 43, Dec. 13, 2012; The High Council of Public Finances is known as Haut conseil des finances publiques. Google Scholar

⁴⁹ Conseil constitutionnel [CC] (Constitutional Court) decision No. 2013-667 DC, paras. 10–16, May 16, 2013.Google Scholar

⁵⁰ Supra note 402.Google Scholar

⁵¹ Conseil constitutionnel [CC] (Constitutional Court) decision No. 2014-700 DC, paras. 5–9 July 31, 2014,Google Scholar

⁵² Conseil constitutionnel [CC] (Constitutional Court) decision No. 2015-465 QPC, AJDA, 2015, 1552, Apr. 24, 2015, note Legrand.Google Scholar

⁵³ Law no. 2013-660 of July 22, 2013, J.O., July 23, 2013, p. 12235 (concerning higher education and research).Google Scholar

⁵⁴ See Decree no. 2014-780 of July 7, 2014, J.O., July 9, 2014, p. 11369.Google Scholar

⁵⁵ Conseil d'Etat, Feb. 1, 2015, no. 386118.Google Scholar

⁵⁶ See this presentation of the facts: Olivier Le Bot, La parité dans les instances universitaires, Constitutions 262 (2015).Google Scholar

⁵⁷ Before the amendment of Corte Const. art. 61 by the Const. Law 2008-724 of July 23, 2008, J.O., July 24, 2008, p. 11890 (modernizing the institutions of the Fifth Republic), France only had abstract, a priori judicial review of legislation, meaning that the constitutionality control could only take place before any legislation entered into force.Google Scholar

⁵⁸ See Conseil constitutionnel [CC] (Constitutional Court) decision No. 2010-5 QPC June 18, 2010; Conseil constitutionnel [CC] (Constitutional Court) decision No. 2012-254 QPC, June 18, 2012.Google Scholar

⁵⁹ For the former, the CUP had linked this to paragraph 8 of the 1946 Constitution's Preamble which states that “[a]ll workers shall through the intermediary of their representatives, participate in the collective determination of their conditions of work and in the management of the work place,” whereas the latter has been declared a fundamental right by the Council itself. See Conseil constitutionnel [CC] (Constitutional Court) decision No. 83-165 DC, Jan. 20, 1984.Google Scholar

⁶⁰ Conseil constitutionnel [CC] (Constitutional Court) decision No. 2015-465 QPC, paras. 13-14, Apr. 24, 2015.Google Scholar

⁶¹ Id. at para. 11.Google Scholar

⁶² Conseil d'Etat [CdE], Ass., May 7, 2013, no. 362280, Lebon, p. 119. Assembly decisions by the CdE are reserved to the most solemn and important decisions by this body.Google Scholar

⁶³ Decree no. 2012-838 of June 29, 2012, J.O., June 30, 2012, p. 10786 (concerning the elections to agricultural chambers).Google Scholar

⁶⁴ Conseil d'Etat, May, 7, 2013, no. 362280; supra note 60, para. 1.Google Scholar

⁶⁵ See Roman, Diane & Hennette-Vauchez, Stéphanie, Seul le législateur peut imposer la parité hommes-femmes dans les listes de candidats aux élections aux chambres d'agriculture [Only the legislator can impose equality between men and women for electoral candidates to the agricultural chambers], Revue française de droit administratif 882 (2013).Google Scholar

⁶⁶ Id. at 887–88.Google Scholar

⁶⁷ Conseil d'Etat, Ass., July 7, 1950, no. 01645, Lebon 426.Google Scholar

⁶⁸ Conseil d'Etat, Oct. 10, 2013, no. 359219.Google Scholar

⁶⁹ Decree no. 2004-22 of Jan. 7, 2004, J.O., Jan. 8, 2004, p. 729.Google Scholar

⁷⁰ Conseil d'Etat, Oct. 10, 2013, no. 359219; Roman & Hennette-Vauchez, supra note 65, para. 5.Google Scholar

⁷¹ Roman & Hennette-Vauchez, supra note 65, para. 6.Google Scholar

⁷² Law Apr. 8, 2004, no. 90, G.U. Apr. 9, 2004, p. 4 (establishing inter alia rules for the elections of Italian members to the European Parliament).Google Scholar

⁷³ Faraguna, Pietro, Recenti sviluppi dell'esperienza costituzionale italiana in tema di c.d. “quote rosa” [Recent developments in the Italian constitutional experience concerning gender quotas] [hereinafter Recent developments], in L'eguaglianza alla prova delle azioni positive [Equality Tested by Affirmative Action] 80 (F. Spitalieri, ed. 2013).Google Scholar

⁷⁴ Law Apr. 22, 2014, no. 65, G.U. Apr. 24, 2014, no. 95 (modifying the rules for the elections of Italian members to the European Parliament).Google Scholar

⁷⁵ For a detailed analysis of these regional interventions, see Elisabetta Catelani, Statuti regionali e tutela del principio delle pari opportunità: prime leggi regionali di attuazione [Regional statutes and protection of the principle of equal opportunities: first implementing regional statutes] [hereinafter Statutiregionali], in Il genere della partecipazione: come promuovere la cittadinanza attiva delle donne [The Gender of Participation: How to Promote Active Citizenship of Women,] 217–56 (Rita Biancheri, ed. 2010).Google Scholar

⁷⁶ Law Nov. 23, 2012, no. 215, G.U. Dec. 11, 2012, no. 288 (establishing inter alia measures to promote a balanced representation in local legislative and executive bodies as well as in regional legislative bodies).Google Scholar

⁷⁷ Law Apr. 7, 2014, no. 56, G.U. Apr. 7, 2014, no. 81.Google Scholar

⁷⁸ Law Feb. 15, 2016, no. 20, G.U. Feb. 25, 2016, no. 46.Google Scholar

⁷⁹ See id. at 8.Google Scholar

⁸⁰ Law, May 6, 2015, no. 52; G.U. May 8, 2015, no. 105; the lower chamber of Parliament is the Camera dei deputati. Google Scholar

⁸¹ This system is also known under the term “double gender preference” (doppia preferenza di genere).Google Scholar

⁸² Corte Cost., Jan. 25, 2017, no. 35.Google Scholar

⁸³ See Bill (Proposta) no. 4262, presented on Jan. 31, 2017, http://www.camera.it/_dati/leg17/lavori/stampati/pdf/17PDL0049420.pdf (last visited November 12, 2018); Bill (Proposta) no. 4309, presented on Feb. 17, 2017, http://www.camera.it/_dati/leg17/lavori/stampati/pdf/17PDL0050170.pdf (last visited November 12, 2018); and Bill (Proposta) no. 4331, presented on Feb. 24, 2017, http://www.camera.it/_dati/leg17/lavori/stampati/pdf/17PDL0050141.pdf (last visited November 12, 2018).Google Scholar

⁸⁴ Corte Cost., Jan. 27, 2005, no. 39. The underlying facts of this case concerned a public competition to become director of the museum of the municipality Bassano del Grappa. A first competition was annulled due to the absence of women in the selection committee and the case was litigated through the administrative system all the way to the Supreme Administrative Court, which raised the issue of constitutionality of the applicable statute (art. 61, para. 1(a), of the Legislative Decree Feb. 6, 1993, no. 29, supra note 23) which had introduced such obligation.Google Scholar

⁸⁵ Corte Cost., Jan. 14, 2010, no. 4; Giurisprudenza costituzionale 63–81 (2010) (with note by Carlassare, Olivetti & Leone at 81–100).Google Scholar

⁸⁶ Corte Cost., Jan. 14, 2010, no. 4, para. 3.1.Google Scholar

⁸⁷ Id. at para. 3.3.Google Scholar

⁸⁸ Id. at para. 3.2.Google Scholar

⁸⁹ See, e.g., Pazè, Elisa, Quote rosa: dubbi di costituzionalità e riserve critiche, XLI Politica del diritto 669 (2010).Google Scholar

⁹⁰ Faraguna, Pietro, Recent developments, supra note 73, at 76.Google Scholar

⁹¹ See Law Apr. 10, 1991, no. 125, supra note 21.Google Scholar

⁹² Art. 61, para. 1(a) of the Legislative Decree Feb. 6, 1993, no. 29, supra note 23, which can today be found in a modified version at Art. 57, para. 1(a) of Legislative Decree Mar. 30, 2001, no. 165, G.U. May 9, 2001, Supp., no. 112 (also known as Testo unico sull'impiego pubblico (TUPI), the Consolidated Act on Civil Service).Google Scholar

⁹³ Art. 6, para. 3 of Legislative Decree Aug. 18, 2000, no. 267, G.U. Sep. 28, 2000, no. 227 (also known as Testo Unico delle leggi sull'ordinamento degli enti locali (TUEL), the Consolidated Act on Local Entities).Google Scholar

⁹⁴ Law Nov. 23, 2012, no. 215, supra note 76, at 16.Google Scholar

⁹⁵ Id. at art. 2.Google Scholar

⁹⁶ Law Apr. 7, 2014, no. 56, supra note 77, at art. 1, para. 137.Google Scholar

⁹⁷ Legislative Decree Aug. 18, 2000, no. 267, supra note 93, at art. 47.Google Scholar

⁹⁸ Cons. stato, sez. I, opinion no. 93, para. 6, Jan. 19, 2015.Google Scholar

⁹⁹ I borrow this classification from the article by Alfredo Amato, Focus sulla giurisprudenza amministrativa in materia di pari opportunità nell'accesso agli uffici pubblici e alle cariche elettive, Istituzioni del federalismo 913 no. 4 (2001).Google Scholar

¹⁰⁰ The case law is quite vast indeed and this Article only provides a glimpse of the actual decisions taken in the domain. For additional cases that are not mentioned here in this contribution, see, e.g., Ugo Adamo, La promozione del principio di pariopportunita nella composizione delle giunte negli enti territoriali alla luce della più recente giurisprudenza amministrativa [The promotion of the principle of equal opportunity in the composition of local governments in the light of the most recent administrative case law] [hereinafter The promotion of the principle of equal opportunity], Rivista AIC, no. 2, May 11, 2011, fn. 2 available at: http://www.rivistaaic.it/la-promozione-del-principio-di-pari-opportunit-nella-composizione-delle-giunte-negli-enti-territoriali-alla-luce-della-pi-recente-giurisprudenza-amministrativa.html (last visited June 6, 2017); Marta Cerroni, Il principio di pari opportunita’ nell'accesso alle cariche elettive alla luce della giurisprudenza amministrativa del 2011 (nota alla sentenza del TAR Sardegna, sez. II, 2 agosto 2011, no. 864) [The principle of equal opportunity in the access to elective positions in the light of the administrative case law of 2011] (note to the judgment of the TAR Sardinia, sez. II, Aug. 2, 2011, no. 864) [hereinafter The principle of equal opportunity], federalismi.it no. 13, fn. 2 (June 27, 2012).Google Scholar

¹⁰¹ Trib. ammin. reg. Lombardia, Milano, sez. I, Feb. 4, 2011, no. 354.Google Scholar

¹⁰² Cons. stato, sez. V, June 23, 2014, no. 3144.Google Scholar

¹⁰³ These are called assessori. Google Scholar

¹⁰⁴ Cons. stato, sez. V, July 24, 2014, no. 3938.Google Scholar

¹⁰⁵ Trib. ammin. reg. Lazio, sez. II, July 25, 2011, no. 6673.Google Scholar

¹⁰⁶ Trib. ammin. reg. Campania, Napoli, sez. I, Apr. 7, 2011, no. 1985.Google Scholar

¹⁰⁷ Trib. ammin. reg. Puglia, Lecce, sez. I, Feb. 24, 2010, no. 622.Google Scholar

¹⁰⁸ See, e.g., Trib. ammin. reg. Campania, Napoli, sez. I, June 7, 2010, no. 12668; Trib. ammin. reg. Calabria, Reggio Calabria, Sept. 27, 2012, no. 589.Google Scholar

¹⁰⁹ Trib. ammin. reg. Sardegna, sez. II, Aug. 2, 2011, no. 864. For a comment on this decision, see Cerroni, The principle of equal opportunity, supra note 100.Google Scholar

¹¹⁰ See, e.g., Trib. ammin. reg. Puglia, Bari, sez. I, Jan. 17, 2012, no. 191; Cons. stato, sez. V, Dec. 18, 2013, no. 6073.Google Scholar

¹¹¹ Mainly Corte Cost. art. 24 (the right of everyone to bring cases before a court of law in order to protect their rights under civil and administrative law) and Corte Cost. art. 113 (guaranteeing the right of judicial protection against acts by the public administration).Google Scholar

¹¹² See, e.g., Cass. (S.U.), May 18, 2006, no. 11623.Google Scholar

¹¹³ Corte Cost., Apr. 2, 2012, no. 81.Google Scholar

¹¹⁴ Reference here is made in particular to art. 51, para. 1 and art. 117 of the Constituzione [Cost.] (It.).Google Scholar

¹¹⁵ Art. 51, para. 4.3 Constituzione [Cost.] (It.).Google Scholar

¹¹⁶ See, e.g., Trib. ammin. reg. Campania, sez. I, Mar. 10, 2011, no. 1427. For a comment on this case, see supra Adamo, note 100.Google Scholar

¹¹⁷ This is partly what is indicated in a Circular by the Interior Ministry, dated Apr. 24, 2014, at point 3.Google Scholar

¹¹⁸ Trib. ammin. reg. Marche, sentenza 2012, no. 81. It should be indicated here, that for certain smaller municipalities there is the faculty but not the obligation to name members outside of the municipal council (i.e. the municipal legislative organ) to become part of the local executive.Google Scholar

¹¹⁹ See, e.g., Trib. ammin. reg. Puglia, Lecce, sez. I, ordinanza Oct. 21, 2009, no. 792; Trib. ammin. reg. Calabria, Catanzaro, sez. II, Jan. 9, 2015, no. 1.Google Scholar

¹²⁰ Trib. ammin. reg. Puglia, sez. III, July 6, 2005, no. 680.Google Scholar

¹²¹ I explicitly do not add “her actions” here because in all the cases read and analyzed it was male mayors/presidents whose actions were under scrutiny and not female ones.Google Scholar

¹²² See Trib. ammin. reg. Puglia, Lecce, sez. I, Oct. 10, 2009, no. 792.Google Scholar

¹²³ Supra note 105.Google Scholar

¹²⁴ Trib. ammin. reg. Calabria, Catanzaro, sez. II, Jan. 9, 2015, no. 1. On that same day the same administrative court decided practically identical facts (no women or one woman nominated by the mayors) for three other small towns—Torano Castello, Vaccarizzo Albanese, Rombiolo—with the same outcome in Trib. ammin. reg. Calabria, Catanzaro, sez. II, Jan. 9, 2015, nos. 2–4.Google Scholar

¹²⁵ Cons. stato, sez. V, Feb. 3, 2016, no. 406.Google Scholar

¹²⁶ In Italian they are called consigliere/a di parità. Google Scholar

¹²⁷ For more details on the history of these counsellors, see Cristina Calvanelli, La disciplina della figura e delle funzioni della consigliera e del consigliere di parità nel d. lgs. 198/2006 [The framework of the figure and functions of the equality counsellor in legislative decree 198/2006], in Il codice delle pari opportunità [The Equal Opportunity Code] 37–93 (Giuseppe de Marzol ed., 2007).Google Scholar

¹²⁸ Law Dec. 19, 1984, no. 863, art. 4, para. 4, G.U., Dec. 22, 1984, no. 351.Google Scholar

¹²⁹ Law Apr. 10, 1991, no. 125, G.U., Apr. 15, 1991, no. 88 (establishing affirmative action measures for equality between men and women at work), and the amendments made by the Legislative Decree May 23, 2000, no. 196, G.U., July 18, 2000, no. 166.Google Scholar

¹³⁰ Legislative Decree Apr. 11, 2006, no. 198, G.U., May 31, 2006, Ord. Supp. no. 133, which is better known as the Testo Unico delle pari opportunità. Google Scholar

¹³¹ See the four Calabrian cases already mentioned above, supra note 108, but also Trib. ammin. reg. Puglia, Bari, sez. I, Jan. 11, 2012, no. 79.Google Scholar

¹³² For more detail on these institutions, see Catelani, supra note 75, at 217–56.Google Scholar

¹³³ See, e.g., Trib. ammin. reg. Puglia, Bari, sez. I, Jan. 11, 2012, no. 79; Trib. ammin. reg. Piemonte, Jan. 13, 2013, no. 24.Google Scholar

¹³⁴ See, e.g., Trib. ammin. reg. Sardegna, sez. II, Aug. 2, 2011, no. 864 and Trib. ammin. reg. Sicilia, Palermo, sez. I, July 19, 2010, no. 8690.Google Scholar

¹³⁵ See, e.g., Trib. ammin. reg. Puglia, Lecce., sez. I, June 6, 2005, no. 680; Trib. ammin. reg. Sicilia, sez. I, Dec. 15, 2010, no. 14310; Trib. ammin. reg. Lazio, supra note 105; and Trib. ammin. reg. Lazio, sez. II, Jan. 20, 2012, no. 679.Google Scholar

¹³⁶ See Trib. ammin. reg. Sardegna, sez. II, June 27, 2011, no. 664.Google Scholar

¹³⁷ As was the case in Rome in the decision cited supra note 105.Google Scholar

¹³⁸ Trib. ammin. reg. Campania, sez. I, Mar. 10, 2011, no. 1427; Trib. ammin. reg. Piemonte, sez. I, Jan. 10, 2013, no. 24; Trib. ammin. reg. Calabria, sez. II, Feb. 6, 2015, no. 278.Google Scholar

¹³⁹ See, e.g., Trib. ammin. reg. Campania, Napoli, sez. I, June 7, 2010, no. 12668; Trib. ammin. reg. Campania, Napoli, Apr. 7, 2011, no. 1985; Cons. stato, sez. V, July 27, 2011, no. 4502 (upholding the Trib. ammin. reg. Napoli judgment no. 1985/2011).Google Scholar

¹⁴⁰ See Trib. ammin. reg. Sardegna, sez. II, Aug. 2, 2011, no. 864; Trib. ammin. reg. Campania, Napoli, sez. I, Apr. 7, 2011, no. 1985.Google Scholar

¹⁴¹ Sophie Boyron, The Constitution of France 29–94 (2013).Google Scholar

¹⁴² See Decree Abolishing the Feudal System, Aug. 11, 1789, published in John L. Heinemann, Readings in European History: 1789 To the Present 9–10 (2d ed., 1994).Google Scholar

¹⁴³ That this might be in itself some form of constitutional gender stereotyping has been discussed elsewhere, see Mathias Möschel, La tutela giuridica contro gli stereotipi di genere [The legal protection against gender stereotypes], XXXIII Rivista critica del diritto privato 443, 461–62 (2015).Google Scholar