Hostname: page-component-5d84bcc8dc-8kznv Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2026-09-13T06:22:39.321Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The Autocrat's Corruption Dilemma

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  23 June 2021

Christopher Carothers Open the ORCID record for Christopher Carothers [Opens in a new window]
Christopher Carothers*
Affiliation:
Center for the Study of Contemporary China, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, US
*
*Corresponding author. Email: Chris.j.carothers@gmail.com
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

A large body of scholarship shows that autocrats can use corruption strategically to strengthen their political hold, such as by distributing rents to their supporters. However, this scholarship often overlooks how corruption may also politically damage autocrats. I argue that corruption often brings substantial political costs alongside its advantages, resulting in a ‘corruption dilemma’ for autocrats. I show that in recent years, public anger over corruption has led to numerous anti-government protests and has been a major cause of autocrats being ousted from power. How politically costly corruption is depends on factors such as the public's tolerance for corruption, whether the autocrat is accountable to quasi-democratic institutions and whether the autocrat can credibly claim to be fighting corruption. The case of Malaysia illustrates how relying on corrupt practices to stay in power can backfire even in a long-standing authoritarian regime. My analysis advances our understanding of corruption's mixed role in authoritarian durability and authoritarian strategies of rule.

Keywords

authoritarian durabilityautocratscorruptioncorruption dilemmaMalaysia

Information

Type
Article
Information
Government and Opposition , Volume 58 , Issue 1 , January 2023 , pp. 22 - 38
Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s), 2021. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of Government and Opposition Limited

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Article purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

Anderson, C and Tverdova, Y (2003) Corruption, Political Allegiances, and Attitudes toward Government in Contemporary Democracies. American Journal of Political Science 47(1), 91–109. https://doi.org/10.1111/1540-5907.00007.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Arampatzi, E et al. (2018) Unhappy Development: Dissatisfaction with Life on the Eve of the Arab Spring. Review of Income and Wealth 64(1), 80–113. https://doi.org/10.1111/roiw.12388.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beech, H et al. (2018) A Stunning, Sudden Fall for Najib Razak, Malaysia's ‘Man of Steal’. New York Times, 15 May. www.nytimes.com/2018/05/15/world/asia/malaysia-najib-razak-fall.html.Google Scholar
Blaydes, L (2011) Elections and Distributive Politics in Mubarak's Egypt. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Brownlee, J (2007) Authoritarianism in an Age of Democratization. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bueno de Mesquita, B and Smith, A (2011) The Dictator's Handbook: Why Bad Behavior is Almost Always Good Politics, 1st edn. New York: PublicAffairs.Google Scholar
Bueno de Mesquita, B et al. (2003) The Logic of Political Survival. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carothers, C (2020a) Taking Authoritarian Anti-Corruption Reform Seriously. Perspectives on Politics, published early online, June. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1537592720001371.Google Scholar
Carothers, C (2020b) The Global Rise of Corruption-Driven Political Change. Taiwan Journal of Democracy 16(2), 147–168. www.tfd.org.tw/export/sites/tfd/files/publication/journal/147-168-The-Global-Rise-of-Corruption-Driven-Political-Change.pdf.Google Scholar
Carothers, T and Youngs, R (2015) The Complexities of Global Protest. Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 8 October. https://carnegieendowment.org/2015/10/08/complexities-of-global-protests-pub-61537.Google Scholar
Carrasco, D et al. (2020) Civic Knowledge and Open Classroom Discussion: Explaining Tolerance of Corruption among 8th-Grade Students in Latin America. Educational Psychology 40(2), 186–206. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2019.1699907.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Case, W (2004) New Uncertainties for an Old Pseudo-Democracy: The Case of Malaysia. Comparative Politics 37(1), 83–104. https://doi.org/10.2307/4150125.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Case, W (2008) Malaysia in 2007: High Corruption and Low Opposition. Asian Survey 48(1), 47–54. https://doi.org/10.1525/as.2008.48.1.47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Case, W (2017) Stress Testing Leadership in Malaysia: The 1MDB Scandal and Najib Tun Razak. Pacific Review 30(5), 633–654. https://doi.org/10.1080/09512748.2017.1282538.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clark, D and Regan, P (2016) Mass Mobilization Protest Data. Harvard Dataverse, V4. https://doi.org/10.7910/DVN/HTTWYL.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cockcroft, L (2012) Global Corruption: Money, Power and Ethics in the Modern World. London: I.B. Tauris.Google Scholar
Croissant, A and Lorenz, P (2018) Malaysia: Competitive Authoritarianism in a Plural Society. In Croissant, A and Lorenz, P (eds), Comparative Politics of Southeast Asia. Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 141–176.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Davenport, C (2007) State Repression and Political Order. Annual Review Political Science 10, 1–23. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.polisci.10.101405.143216.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
De Vaal, A and Ebben, W (2011) Institutions and the Relation between Corruption and Economic Growth. Review of Development Economics 15(1), 108–123. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9361.2010.00596.x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Diamond, L (2002) Elections Without Democracy: Thinking About Hybrid Regimes. Journal of Democracy 13(2), 21–35. https://doi.org/10.1353/jod.2002.0025.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Domínguez, I (1978) Cuba: Order and Revolution. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Egorov, G and Sonin, K (2011) Dictators and Their Viziers: Endogenizing the Loyalty–Competence Trade-Off. Journal of the European Economic Association 9(5), 903–930. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1542-4774.2011.01033.x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Elfstrom, M (2019) Two Steps Forward, One Step Back: Chinese State Reactions to Labour Unrest. China Quarterly 240, 855–879. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0305741019000067.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fairbanks, C (2004) Georgia's Rose Revolution. Journal of Democracy 15(2), 110–124. https://doi.org/10.1353/jod.2004.0025.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fell, D (2005) Party Politics in Taiwan: Party Change and the Democratic Evolution of Taiwan, 1991–2004. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Gandhi, J and Lust-Okar, E (2009) Elections Under Authoritarianism. Annual Review of Political Science 12(1), 403–422. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.polisci.11.060106.095434.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gebrekidan, S et al. (2019) The Money Farmers: How Oligarchs and Populists Milk the E.U. for Millions. New York Times, 3 November. www.nytimes.com/2019/11/03/world/europe/eu-farm-subsidy-hungary.html.Google Scholar
Geddes, B (1999) What do We Know about Democratization after Twenty Years? Annual Review of Political Science 2(1), 115–144. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.polisci.2.1.115.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gerschewski, J (2013) The Three Pillars of Stability: Legitimation, Repression, and Co-optation in Autocratic Regimes. Democratization 20(1), 13–38. https://doi.org/10.1080/13510347.2013.738860.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gillespie, K and Okruhlik, G (1991) The Political Dimensions of Corruption Cleanups: A Framework for Analysis. Comparative Politics 24(1), 77–95. https://doi.org/10.2307/422202.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gomez, ET (2012) Monetizing Politics: Financing Parties and Elections in Malaysia. Modern Asian Studies 46(5), 1370–1397. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0026749X12000200.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gomez, ET and Jomo, KS (1997) Malaysia's Political Economy: Politics, Patronage and Profits. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Goodman, A (1975) South Vietnam: War Without End? Asian Survey 15(1), 70–84. https://doi.org/10.2307/2643432.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Heidenheimer, AJ and Johnston, M (2002) Political Corruption: Concepts and Contexts, 3rd edn. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers.Google Scholar
Hilley, J (2001) Malaysia: Mahathirism, Hegemony and the New Opposition. London: Zed Books.Google Scholar
Hsu, C (2001) Political Narratives and the Production of Legitimacy: The Case of Corruption in Post-Mao China. Qualitative Sociology 24(1), 25–54. http://doi.org/10.1023/A:1026691329912.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jensen, PS and Justesen, MK (2014) Poverty and Vote Buying: Survey-Based Evidence from Africa. Electoral Studies 33, 220–232. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electstud.2013.07.020.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johnson, J and Thyne, CL (2018) Squeaky Wheels and Troop Loyalty: How Domestic Protests Influence Coups d’État, 1952–2005. Journal of Conflict Resolution 62(3), 597–625. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022002716654742.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kandelaki, G (2006) Georgia's Rose Revolution: A Participant's Perspective. Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace, https://www.usip.org/sites/default/files/sr167.pdf.Google Scholar
Kapeli, NS and Mohamed, N (2015) Insight of Anti-Corruption Initiatives in Malaysia. Procedia Economics and Finance 31, 525–534. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2212-5671(15)01197-1.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Krastev, I and Inozemtsev, V (2013) Putin's Self-Destruction. Foreign Affairs, 9 June. www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/russian-federation/2013-06-09/putins-self-destruction.Google Scholar
Kupatadze, A (2008) Organized Crime Before and After the Tulip Revolution: The Changing Dynamics of Upperworld-Underworld Networks. Central Asian Survey 27(3–4), 279–299. https://doi.org/10.1080/02634930802560449.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lankov, A (2015) Why North Korea is so Corrupt, and Why That May be Good. NKNews, 16 October. www.nknews.org/2015/10/why-north-korea-is-so-corrupt-and-why-that-may-be-good/.Google Scholar
Leber, A et al. (2021) When Can Dictators Go It Alone? Personalization and Oversight in Authoritarian Regimes. Working paper presented at the 78th Annual Midwest Political Science Conference, April.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Levey, S (2011) Fighting Corruption After the Arab Spring. Foreign Affairs, 16 June. www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/middle-east/2011-06-16/fighting-corruption-after-arab-spring.Google Scholar
Levitsky, S and Way, L (2002) Elections Without Democracy: The Rise of Competitive Authoritarianism. Journal of Democracy 13(2), 51–65. http://doi.org/10.1353/jod.2002.0026.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Levitsky, S and Way, L (2010) Competitive Authoritarianism: Hybrid Regimes after the Cold War. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lust-Okar, E (2006) Elections under Authoritarianism: Preliminary Lessons from Jordan. Democratization 13(3), 456–471. https://doi.org/10.1080/13510340600579359.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mahoney, J (2010) After KKV: The New Methodology of Qualitative Research. World Politics 62(1), 120–147. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0043887109990220.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Martinez, P (2001) The Islamic State or the State of Islam. Contemporary Southeast Asia 23(3), 474–503. www.jstor.org/stable/25798563.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Méon, PG and Weill, L (2010) Is Corruption an Efficient Grease? World Development 38(3), 244–259. http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.1304596.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mungiu-Pippidi, A (2015) The Quest for Good Governance: How Societies Develop Control of Corruption. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Newell, P (1994) The Transition to the Transition toward Democracy in Taiwan: Political Change in the Chiang Ching-Kuo Era, 1971–1986. ProQuest Dissertations Publishing.Google Scholar
Ostwald, K (2017) Malaysia's Electoral Process: The Methods and Costs of Perpetuating UMNO Rule. https://ssrn.com/abstract=3048551.Google Scholar
Ottaway, M (2003) Democracy Challenged: The Rise of Semi-Authoritarianism. Washington, DC: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace.Google Scholar
Pharr, S and Putnam, R (2000) Disaffected Democracies: What's Troubling the Trilateral Countries? Princeton: Princeton University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pirro, A and Della Porta, D (2020) On Corruption and State Capture: The Struggle of Anti-Corruption Activism in Hungary. Europe–Asia Studies, published early online, August. https://doi.org/10.1080/09668136.2020.1798684.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Powell, J and Thyne, C (2011) Global Instances of Coups from 1950–Present. Journal of Peace Research 48(2), 249–259. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343310397436.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reuters (1985) Malaysia Discloses Details of Bank Scandal. New York Times, 8 January. www.nytimes.com/1985/01/08/business/malaysia-discloses-details-of-bank-scandal.html.Google Scholar
Rose-Ackerman, S (1999) Corruption and Government: Causes, Consequences, and Reform. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Saw, S and Kesavapany, K (eds) (2006) Malaysia: Recent Trends and Challenges. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies.Google Scholar
Senters, K et al. (2018) Continuity and Change in Public Attitudes toward Corruption. In Ames, B (ed.), Routledge Handbook of Brazilian Politics. New York: Routledge, pp. 15–38.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Siddiquee, N (2010) Combating Corruption and Managing Integrity in Malaysia: A Critical Overview of Recent Strategies and Initiatives. Public Organization Review 10(2), 153–171. http://doi.org/10.1007/s11115-009-0102-y.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Slater, D and Smith, N (2016) The Power of Counterrevolution: Elitist Origins of Political Order in Postcolonial Asia and Africa. American Journal of Sociology 121(5), 1472–1516. https://doi.org/10.1086/684199.Google Scholar
Snegovaya, M (2020) Voice or Exit? Political Corruption and Voting Intentions in Hungary. Democratization, published early online, April. https://doi.org/10.1080/13510347.2020.1766447.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sprouse, PD (1947) Memorandum of Conversation by Mr. Philip D. Sprouse, July 23. In Foreign Relations of the United States, 1947, The Far East: China, Volume VII, Document 552, Office of the Historian at the U.S. Department of State, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1947v07/d552.Google Scholar
Svolik, M (2012) The Politics of Authoritarian Rule. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thomas, H (1971) Cuba: The Pursuit of Freedom. London: Eyre & Spottiswoode.Google Scholar
Treisman, D (2017) Democracy by Mistake. NBER Working Paper No. 23944, October, www.nber.org/system/files/working_papers/w23944/w23944.pdf.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Truex, R (2011) Corruption, Attitudes, and Education: Survey Evidence from Nepal. World Development 39(7), 1133–1142. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2010.11.003.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Volpi, F (2020) Algeria: When Elections Hurt Democracy. Journal of Democracy 31(2), 152–165. http://doi.org/10.1353/jod.2020.0028.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wain, B (2009) Malaysian Maverick: Mahathir Mohamad in Turbulent Times. Basingstoke and New York: Palgrave Macmillan.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weiss, M (2019) Electing Reform: Barisan Nasional Neopatrimonialism as Impetus for and Challenge to Malaysia's Democratic Transition. Taiwan Journal of Democracy 15(1), 41–61. www.tfd.org.tw/export/sites/tfd/files/publication/journal/041-062-Electing-Reform.pdf.Google Scholar
Welsh, B (2013) Malaysia's Election and Najib's Challenged Mandate. East-West Center, Asia Pacific Bulletin 216, 19 June. https://www.eastwestcenter.org/system/tdf/private/apb216_0.pdf?file=1&type=node&id=34099.Google Scholar
White, S (1986) Economic Performance and Communist Legitimacy. World Politics: A Quarterly Journal of International Relations 38(3), 462–482. https://doi.org/10.2307/2010202.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wurfel, D (1988) Filipino Politics: Development and Decay. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Yang, H and Zhao, D (2015) Performance Legitimacy, State Autonomy and China's Economic Miracle. Journal of Contemporary China 24(91), 64–82. https://doi.org/10.1080/10670564.2014.918403.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yerkes, S (2017) Corruption, Not Terrorism, Is Tunisia's Biggest Threat. Carnegie Europe, Judy Dempsey's Strategic Europe, 8 December. https://carnegieeurope.eu/strategiceurope/74952.Google Scholar
Zhao, D (2009) The Mandate of Heaven and Performance Legitimation in Historical and Contemporary China. American Behavioral Scientist 53(3), 416–433. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764209338800.Google Scholar