Although choice may be seen as an end in itself, the papers included in this special issue of Health Economics, Policy and Law, examine choice policies in European systems of health care, which aim to be effective instruments for ameliorating the systemic pressures from the iron triangle of equity, efficiency, and cost. Three papers consider the nature of differences between and within countries following the Beveridge and Bismarck models of financing and organising the delivery of care, and how choices are changing within different systems. Within countries following the Beveridge model, current policies in England, Denmark and Sweden emphasise increasing patient choice of provider. Within countries following the Bismarck model, current policies in France and Germany seek to restrict choice of specialists by introducing ‘soft’ gatekeeping; and in the Netherlands there is a system of managed competition with choice of insurer that, in principle, allows insurers to contract selectively with providers. A fourth paper considers how government policies that seek to restrict choice within systems of universal coverage have been subject to challenges in the courts. A commentary explores the implications of the fraught and complex nature of choices between insurers and providers of health care for designing effective choice policies.

Demography’s contribution to health policy debates comes from the study of population dynamics relating to fertility, mortality and migration. The aim of this article is to stress how vital a correct understanding of population dynamics is for health policy and planning. The article first highlights some of the major contributions demographers have made to debates about health, particularly where they have helped to overcome misconceptions. It then discusses two prominent issues: population ageing in the developed world and population growth in developing countries.

This article proposes a systematic framework for analysis of the increasingly popular concept of user choice in European health systems. The development of such a framework is exemplified using one category of potential choice: the choice of health service provider. In the first part, the paper summarises the conceptual background of the user choice debate. Subsequently, the paper theoretically analyses the concept of user choice alongside a stringent set of standard dimensions embracing technical, administrative and allocative efficiency, as well as equity in access and finance. Reference to available evidence is made where applicable. The employed dimensions are critically discussed and finally mapped against the identified determinants within a systematic matrix framework for analysis. Furthermore, the paper underlines that user choice is by no means a panacea but rather a highly complex and ambiguous political strategy. Extended choice in some sectors and levels of health systems may lead to inefficiencies and may therefore lead to loss of benefits, including choice, for individuals and society.

Recent authors have proposed that waiting times for elective treatment should be reduced to the point where the costs of doing so exceed the benefits. This paper considers how this criterion could be put into effect. Taking benefits first it argues that these could be estimated in three different ways – social cost benefit, clinical and user valuation – that would not necessarily produce consistent results and hence a choice has to be made between them. It then considers the costs of reducing waits and argues, citing relevant evidence, that these may range widely according to whether or not reductions can be achieved through simple management measures or whether more long-term capacity is required. It concludes therefore that the apparently simple criterion proposed for defining the point where waiting times are optimal is hard to establish. Choice of criterion must be made in the light of the overall values that a given health care system is intended to promote.

This paper employs widely used analytic techniques for measuring equity in health care financing to update Irish results from previous analysis based on data from the late 1980s. Kakwani indices are calculated using household survey data from 1987/88 to 2004/05. Results indicate a marginally progressive financing system overall. However, interpretation of the results for the private sources of health financing is complicated. This problem is not unique to Ireland but it is argued that it may be relatively more important in the context of a complex health financing system, illustrated in this paper by the Irish system. Alternative options for improving the analysis of equity in health care financing are discussed.

Industrialised countries face similar challenges for improving the performance of their health system. Nevertheless, the nature and intensity of the reforms required are largely determined by each country’s basic social security model. Most reforms in Beveridge-type systems have sought to increase choice and reduce waiting times while those in major Bismarck-type systems have focused on cost control by constraining the choice of providers. This paper looks at the main differences in performance of five countries and reviews their recent reform experience, focusing on three questions: Are there systematic differences in performance of Beveridge and Bismarck-type systems? What are the key parameters of healthcare system, which underlie these differences? Have recent reforms been effective?

Our results do not suggest that one system-type performs consistently better than the other. In part, this may be explained by the heterogeneity in organisational design and governance both within and across these systems. Insufficient attention to those structural differences may explain the limited success of a number of recent reforms. Thus, while countries may share similar problems in terms of improving healthcare performance, adopting a ‘copy-and-paste’ approach to healthcare reform is likely to be ineffective.

The implementation of choice for patients over where and when they are seen by specialists in hospital outpatient clinics has been supported by electronic referral systems in England and the Netherlands. This paper compares the implementation of ‘Choose and Book’ in England and ‘ZorgDomein’ in a region of the Netherlands. For England the analysis draws on national data and published studies on ‘Choose and Book’, national patient surveys, and qualitative data based on general practitioner (GP) focus groups. For the Netherlands the analysis draws on qualitative data collected during observational study as well as survey data among patients, GPs and medical specialists. We find that despite significant differences in the genesis and design of the policy, similar challenges have been faced. The electronic referral systems have forced changes to the process of care at the interface between primary and secondary care and standardisation between practices. Although these changes have the potential to generate improvements and benefits, for example, convenience, certainty and choice for patients and efficiency gains through for example reduced do not attend rates, repeat consultations and duplicative diagnostic tests; they have also generated problems during implementation including GP resistance. Policy ambitions for patient choice may not be realised if the implementation of the booking system is not carefully designed and evaluated.

The proportion of the population treated for major medical conditions, including diabetes, cancer and mental illness, increased rapidly during the 1990s. We document the magnitude of these increases and use a model of prevalence to identify three potential causes: increased clinical incidence of disease, longer survival times among persons with chronic illnesses and increased detection. We present a series of analyses to evaluate the contribution of each factor. We find that increases in obesity explain a large proportion of the increase in treatment rates for conditions closely linked to obesity (e.g. diabetes). We provide some evidence that increases in treated prevalence unexplained by changes in the underlying clinical incidence of disease are driven by increased detection and treatment of patients with ‘subclinical’ illness.

Although there has been substantial debate and research concerning the economic impact of neo-liberal practices, there is a paucity of research about the potential relation between neo-liberal economic practices and population health. We assessed the extent to which neo-liberal policies and practices are associated with population health at the national level. We collected data on 119 countries between 1980 and 2004. We measured neo-liberalism using the Fraser Institute’s Economic Freedom of the World (EFW) Index, which gives an overall score as well as a score for each of five different aspects of neo-liberal economic practices: (1) size of government, (2) legal structure and security of property rights, (3) access to sound money, (4) freedom to exchange with foreigners and (5) regulation of credit, labor and business. Our measure of population health was under-five mortality. We controlled for potential mediators (income distribution, social capital and openness of political institutions) and confounders (female literacy, total population, rural population, fertility, gross domestic product per capita and time period). In longitudinal multivariable analyses, we found that the EFW index did not have an effect on child mortality but that two of its components: improved security of property rights and access to sound money were associated with lower under-five mortality (p = 0.017 and p = 0.024, respectively). When stratifying the countries by level of income, less regulation of credit, labor and business was associated with lower under-five mortality in high-income countries (p = 0.001). None of the EFW components were significantly associated with under-five mortality in low-income countries. This analysis suggests that the concept of ‘neo-liberalism’ is not a monolithic entity in its relation to health and that some ‘neo-liberal’ policies are consistent with improved population health. Further work is needed to corroborate or refute these findings.

This paper analyses the influence of recent German health care reforms, the Statutory Health Insurance Modernization Act 2004 and the Statutory Health Insurance Competition Strengthening Act 2007, on different dimensions of access and choice. More specifically, we look at and discuss the effects of these policies on the availability, reachability and affordability of health care as well as on their impact on consumers’ choice of insurers and providers. Generally, patients in Germany enjoy a high degree of free access and a lot of freedom to choose, partly leading to over- and misuse of health services. Concerning choice of insurers, one result of our analysis is that in the statutory health insurance system, the introduction of a greater variety of benefit packages will develop into an additional parameter of choice. In contrast to that, insurees more and more accept certain restrictions of choice and direct access to providers by enrolling into new forms of care (such as gatekeeping-, disease management- and integrated care programmes). However, they might benefit from better quality of care and more options for products and services that best fit their needs.

Questions about the design of the new US Medicare prescription drug benefit were raised even before its passage, where one of the most heated issues has been the number of plans offered to beneficiaries. Whether beneficiaries believe that there should be extensive or limited choice is still an open question. To study this issue, we analyzed data from the Kaiser Family Foundation/Harvard School of Public Health Survey, which included 718 individuals aged 65 years and above. The survey asked these older adults (i) whether they prefer having dozens of plans or for Medicare to offer a restricted number of plans and (ii) whether they think there are too many, too few or the right amount of plans. Our findings show that the majority of beneficiaries (69%) preferred that Medicare offer a limited number of options while only 29% wanted to see dozens of plans on the market. We also examine the effect of education level, income, political affiliation, race and health status on the desire for more or fewer plans. One surprising finding is that seniors with higher education appear to prefer fewer, not more, plan choices. Overall, our results question the merit of offering so many prescription drugs plan choices to Medicare beneficiaries.

Policymakers in publicly funded health-care systems are frequently required to make intricate decisions on which health-care services to include or exclude from the basic health-care package. Although it seems likely that the concept of individual responsibility is an essential feature of such decisions, it is rarely explicitly articulated or evaluated in health policy. This paper presents a tentative conceptual framework for exploring when health-care services contain characteristics that facilitate individual responsibility through private financing. Six attributes for exploring the suitability of private financing for specific health-care commodities are identified: (i) it should enable individuals to value the need and quality both before and after utilization; (ii) it should be targeted toward individuals with a reasonable level of individual autonomy; (iii) it should be associated with low levels of positive externalities; (iv) it should be associated with a demand sufficient to generate a private market; (v) it should be associated with payments affordable for most individuals; and finally, (vi) it should be associated with ‘lifestyle enhancements’ rather than ‘medical necessities’. The tentative framework enables exploration of individual responsibility connected to health care as a heterogeneous group of commodities, and allows policymakers to make decisions on rationing by design rather than default.

Choice is often touted as a means for change within health care systems. Yet ‘choice’, in this context, takes at least three distinct forms: choice between providers within a publicly funded health care system; choice between competing insurers within a universal plan; and, lastly, choice as between privately financed health care and universal public coverage. In Canada, it is this last form of choice that is under active debate; particularly in light of the Supreme Court of Canada’s decision in Chaoulli, which found a regulation banning private health insurance for medically necessary care was unconstitutional. The argument is frequently made that Canada is an outlier from other countries in having regulation that effectively precludes this kind of choice. This issue is likely to become of concern again in upcoming constitutional challenges where applicants are looking to overturn through judicial challenges Canada’s medicare system. This article tests that argument of whether Canada truly is ‘odd’ from a comparative policy perspective by exploring regulation of choice of privately financed health care in several European countries – the Netherlands, Germany, Sweden, England and France. We highlight commonalities as well as differences, showing the extent to which these countries employ regulation to fetter growth of a large privately financed sector. The article’s thesis is that Canada, in employing more intrusive forms of regulation, is not an outlier per se but at one point in a regulatory spectrum.

Studies of the effects of capacity and competition among general practitioners (GPs) on the use of specialist health care services are inconclusive. Some studies indicate that an increase in the number of GPs leads to increased consumption of specialist health care, while other studies point in the opposite direction. This article adds to the literature in two ways; first by testing out different operationalization of capacity and competition among GPs, and then by testing out effects of capacity and competition on use of specialist health care services as this is disaggregated into ambulatory and inpatient activities. The empirical tests indicate that GP capacity in itself does not affect use of specialist health care services. Increased competitions among GPs do, however, reduce the use of ambulatory care while the effects on the use of inpatient services are unaffected.

The purpose of this paper is to describe the characteristics of the high-performing chronic care system and the four implementation strategies needed to achieve such a system. The paper starts with a description of the Chronic Care Model and summarises evidence on its impact. This is followed by a review of international evidence on gaps in the quality of chronic care. These gaps suggest that, useful and influential as the Chronic Care Model is, more is needed to help health care decision makers bring about the reorientation required to meet the needs of populations in which chronic diseases predominate. The second half of the paper therefore sets out the ten characteristics and four implementation strategies required to achieve a high-performing chronic care system. In doing so, it provides practical guidance to policy makers and health care leaders on the most promising strategies for improving the provision of chronic care, drawing on evidence from the experience of England, New Zealand and USA.

There has been substantial consolidation among health insurers and hospitals, recently, raising questions about the effects of this consolidation on the exercise of market power. We analyze the relationship between insurer and hospital market concentration and the prices of hospital services. We use a national US dataset containing transaction prices for health care services for over 11 million privately insured Americans. Using three years of panel data, we estimate how insurer and hospital market concentration are related to hospital prices, while controlling for unobserved market effects. We find that increases in insurance market concentration are significantly associated with decreases in hospital prices, whereas increases in hospital concentration are non-significantly associated with increases in prices. A hypothetical merger between two of five equally sized insurers is estimated to decrease hospital prices by 6.7%.

During 2008, some forms of patient co-payments – in particular, patients paying privately for additional medicines as part of an episode of care in the National Health Service – became controversial in political and policy terms in the UK. In response, the UK Government published a report, the Richards’ Review, examining the issues. Richards offered a particular policy solution, but also touched on fundamental principles of social value. Using the methods of normative policy analysis, we seek to understand these principles of social value, accepting the Richards’ framework according to which the relevant arguments can be grouped under the broad headings of equity and autonomy. None of the arguments on either side are decisive, and, in part, the policy decision turns on uncertain empirical conjectures.

In the 1990s, countries experimented with two models of health care reforms based on choice of provider and insurer. The governments of the UK, Italy, Sweden and New Zealand introduced relatively quickly ‘internal market’ models into their single-payer systems, to transform hierarchies into markets by separating ‘purchasers’ from ‘providers’, and enabling ‘purchasers’ to contract selectively with competing public and private providers so that ‘money followed the patient’. This model has largely been abandoned where it has been tried. England, however, has implemented a modified ‘internal market’ model emphasising patient choice, which has so far had disappointing results. In the Netherlands, it took nearly 20 years to implement successfully the model in which enrollees choose among multiple insurers; but these insurers have so far only realised in part their potential to contract selectively with competing providers. The paper discusses the difficulties of implementing these different models and what England and the Netherlands can learn from each other. This includes exploration, as a thought experiment, of how choice of purchaser might be introduced into the English National Health Service based on lessons from the Netherlands.