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Published online by Cambridge University Press: 09 December 2010
Sir Edward Grey entered the Foreign Office at a time when it was being rapidly transformed. A change in the registration system had freed the junior officials from most routine operations and encouraged the senior men to take a more active part in the actual formation of foreign policy. At the same time, a new group of men took over the most important departmental positions and entered the chief European embassies. For the most part, these men were far more conscious of German power than their predecessors and set the tone of British policy during the first years of Grey's Foreign Secretaryship. Charles Hardinge, Louis Mallet, William Tyrrell and Eyre Crowe in London, Francis Bertie, ambassador in Paris, Arthur Nicolson in St Petersburg and, after 1907, Goschen in Berlin were all to play important roles in shaping the new course.
1 Steiner, Z., ‘The Last Years of the Old Foreign Office’, Historical Journal (May 1965), pp. 59–90.Google Scholar
2 Lloyd George, D., War Memoirs (London, 1933), 1, 98.Google Scholar
3 Hardinge MSS. vol. 9, E. Grey to Hardinge, 27 Sept. 1907: ‘I t is all very satisfactory, and you have as much reason as anyone to be gratified, for your share in the transaction has been a very great one, and you will supervise the working of the agreement, and the development of it in years to come—your stay at the Foreign Office being more assured than mine.’ Ibid. 1909(1), Grey to Lady Hardinge, 17 Dec. 1909.
4 Hardinge MSS. Hardinge to F. Villiers, 19 Nov. 1908.
5 F.O. 800/178, Hardinge to F. Bertie, 25 May 1909.
6 A. Nicolson, Diplomatic Narrative (unpublished), Hardinge to Nicolson, 12 April 1909.
7 A judgement from Algernon Law quoted in Trevelyan, G., Grey of Fallodon (London, 1940), p. 168Google Scholar. See also, Hardinge, C., Old Diplomacy (London, 1947), p. 192.Google Scholar
8 F.O. 800/179, memorandum by Francis Bertie, 27 Sept. 1913.
9 See for instance B.D. VI, no. 204, Hardinge's and Grey's minutes and B.D. v, app. in, pp. 823–6.
10 Steiner, op. cit. pp. 88–9. Also Tyrrell's complaints about Hardinge's monopoly of power.
11 F.O. 800/163, series A, memorandum by F. Bertie, 19 Dec. 1914.
12 F.O. 55/3, memorandum by Hardinge, 30 Oct. 1906; see also F.O. 800/91 (Grey MSS.), Hardinge to Grey, 20 Feb. 1906.
13 Monger, G., The End of Isolation (London, 1963), pp. 266–80.Google Scholar
14 Ibid. pp. 274, 279. Hardinge preferred an entente to an alliance on the ground that ‘the present elastic situation is more satisfactory for us although the fact that we are not bound hand and foot to the French makes the latter nervous and suspicious’ (B.D. in, no. 439, quoted in Monger).
15 B.D. iv, no. 520
16 Ibid. no. 370, 389, 411 (additional evidence in F.O. 371/320 and F.O. 371/369).
17 Ibid. nos. 263 and 267.
18 Ibid. nos. 241, 426; F.O. 371/320, no. 3227, Hardinge to Nicolson, 29 Jan. 1907.
19 F.O. 371/367/7661, memorandum by Hardinge, minute by Grey, 9 March 1907.
20 Hardinge MSS. 1909(1), Hardinge to Nicolson, 26 March 1909. Also ibid. 1908, Hardinge to de Salis, 29 Dec. 1908.
21 B.D. vi, no. 267.
22 Cooper, M. B., ‘British Policy in the Balkans, 1908–9’ Historical Journal (1964–5), p. 261Google Scholar. Hardinge MSS. 1908(III), Hardinge to Barclay, 14 July 1908.
23 B.D. vi, no. 195.
24 Cooper, op. cit. pp. 264–70.
25 This discussion is based on Mr Cooper's findings in the article cited above.
26 B.D. vi, no. 296. F.O. 371/374/41546, 41767, F.O. 371/399/4194. 5761.
27 Hardinge MSS. 1908 (II), Hardinge to Goschen, 30 June 1908.
28 Ibid. 1909(III), Hardinge to Cartwright, 18 May 1909.
29 B.D. v, App. iii, memorandum by Hardinge, 4 May 1909.
30 A. Nicolson, Diplomatic Narrative, Hardinge to Nicolson, 12 April 1909.
31 B.D. v, App. in.
32 Hardinge MSS. 1909(III), Hardinge to Cartwright, 26 Jan. 1909.
33 B.D. v, App. iii; B.D. vi, p. 311, Grey minuted his under-secretary's memorandum: ‘I agree with this paper which is very ably stated; it must be brought up if the question arises.’
34 Hardinge MSS. 1909, Hardinge to Bryce, 4 June 1909.
35 Ibid. 1910(III), Hardinge to Cartwright, 11 Jan. 1910.
36 Ibid. 1908(III), Hardinge to Goschen, 7 Dec. 1908.
37 Hardinge MSS. 1910, Hardinge to Bryce, 11 Feb. 1910.
38 F.O. 371/79, minute by Hardinge, 5 Sept. 1906, quoted in Monger, The End of Isolation, p. 303.
39 Ibid. Bertie MSS. series A, Bertie to Mallet, 25 Aug. 1906.
40 F.O. 800/13, Haldane to Lascelles, 8 Sept. 1906.
41 Hardinge, Old Diplomacy, p. 180; evidence in F.O. 371/262/33356.
42 B.D. vi, no. 44.
43 B.D. vi, 88; F.O. 371/261, minutes by Hardinge, 19 June 1907; 371/263/402948, 31 Dec. 1907.
44 B.D. vi, no. 92, also 2, 8, 21–4.
45 Hardinge MSS. 1908(III), Hardinge to Lascelles, 19 May 1908; Hardinge to Goschen, 7 Dec. 1908.
46 B.D. vi, no. 116, 117.
47 B.D. vi, no. 308.
48 F.O. 800/91, Grey to Hardinge, 6 Aug. 1909: ‘I do not think the possibility of some slacking of German naval expenditure is hopeless.’
49 B.D. vi, nos. 115, 187, 189, 191.
50 Ibid. nos. 179, 186.
51 B.D. vi, no. 190.
52 Ibid. no. 191. Mallet's advice, to inform the Russians, was accepted by Grey (no. 198).
53 Ibid. no. 204.
54 Ibid, minute by Hardinge, pp. 310–12.
55 Ibid. p. 312.
56 Ibid, minute by Sir Edward Grey, 4 May 1909.
57 Ibid. nos. 207, 208, minutes by Crowe.
58 After the close of the parliamentary session, Hardinge's attendance was very irregular and he played no role in the summer conversations with Berlin.
59 B.D. vi, no. 318.
60 Ibid. nos. 344, 351.
61 Hardinge MSS. vol. 10(2), Hardinge to Cartwright, 28 June 1910, also, Hardinge to Lister, 21 June 1910.
62 F.O. 800/92, Hardinge to Nicolson, 29 March 1911.
63 Hardinge MSS. 1910(2), Hardinge to Bertie, 1 April 1910.
64 Monger, The End of Isolation, p. 265. Mallet was to be trained to succeed Hardinge as permanent under-secretary.
65 Hardinge MSS. vol. 9, Hardinge to the king, 7 May 1908.
66 Ibid, and 1910(3), Hardinge to Lowther, 19 April 1910.
67 Ibid. vol. 8, Hardinge to Sir E. Grey, 13 April 1906; Hardinge, Old Diplomacy, pp. 123–4.
68 Hardinge, Old Diplomacy, pp. 130–2. Hardinge MSS. vol. 9, the king to Campbell-Bannerman, 23 Nov. 1906. Grey to Campbell-Bannerman, 21 Nov. 1906.
69 F.O. 800/179, memorandum by Francis Bertie, 28 Sept. 1913.
70 Gall, Wilhelm, Sir Charles Hardinge und die Englische Vorkriegspolitik, 1903–1910 (Berlin, 1939)Google Scholar. Dr Gall used the material from the British documents and assumes throughout that Hardinge's views were based on a deep and unqualified suspicion of German policy.
71 Review of Reviews, ‘The Eclipse of Sir Edward Grey’, Dec. 1909, p. 567.
72 Ibid. p. 575.
73 Hardinge, Old Diplomacy, p. 192.
74 Ibid. p. 193.
75 B.D. vi, minutes on nos. 22, 35, 93, 149, 168, 174, 181.
76 B.D. vi, minutes on nos. 35, 78, 81, 174, 204.
77 Lascelles MSS. vol. in, pt. 5, Fitzmaurice to Lascelles, 21 Sept. 1906.
78 Ibid. Fitzmaurice to Lascelles, 8 and 31 May 1907.
79 Monger, The End of Isolation, pp. 270–1, 276; Steiner, op. cit. p. 84.
80 Monger, op. cit. p. 303.
81 B.D. in, App. B, enclosure 2.
82 The North Sea agreement was a convention concluded between Germany, Denmark, France, the Netherlands, Sweden and Great Britain providing for the maintenance of the status quo on the shores of the North Sea and for consultation between the signatories in case the status quo was threatened. It paralleled one for the Baltic Sea signed by Germany, Russia, Sweden and Denmark at the same time, 23 April 1908.
83 F.O. 800/91, Mallet to Tyrrell, 2 June 1907.
84 F.O. 800/92, Mallet to Grey, 26 Aug. 1909; B.D. vi, no. 191.
85 F.O. 800/92, 17 March 1910; B.D. vi, nos. 267, 342, 451.
86 Evidence in F.O. 371/374/41204, 41016, 41209; F.O. 371/804/4708, 9578; B.D. v, no. 433.
87 B.D. vi, no. 344.
88 F.O. 371/350/4, the whole volume is relevant. The independence of the Far Eastern or Asiatic Department is commented upon in Nish, I., The Anglo-Japanese Alliance (London, 1966), p. 6.Google Scholar
89 F.O. 371/262/30724, minute of Campbell, 26 Aug. 1907.
90 F.O. 371/666/37887, minute by Crowe and Langley, 13 Oct. 1909.
91 B.D. vi, no. 183.
92 B.D. vi, nos. 187, 204, 209.
93 F.O. 371/369/6339, 7661; F.O. 371/3627, 3768.
94 F.O. 371/389/5761, 6339, 7661. Gorst was not happy at the Foreign Office and not a success in Egypt though he was brilliant and able.
95 Lascelles MSS. vol. iii, pt. 5, Fitzmaurice to Lascelles, 21 Sept. 1906.
96 Lascelles MSS. vol. iii, pt. 5, Fitzmaurice to Lascelles, 31 May 1906, quoted in Monger, op. cit. p. 290; B.D. v, nos. 230, 335, 400.
97 Monger, op. cit. p. 290.
98 Ibid. pp. 272, 297. Ripon's complaint to Grey about the North Sea agreement was due to a letter from Fitzmaurice.
99 Spender MSS. B.M. Add. MSS. 46389.
100 Nicolson, H., Sir Arthur Nicolson, Bart. First Lord Carnock (London, 1930), pp. 327–8.Google Scholar
101 Gregory, J. D., On the Edge of Diplomacy, Rambles and Reflections, 1902–28 (London, 1929), p. 255Google Scholar. Gregory's portrait of Crowe is not entirely accurate. Besides being an excellent pianist, Crowe was an avid reader and his reading lists well illustrate the wide range of his intellectual interests and linguistic facilities. Few diplomats could have read Racine, Dickens, Ranke and Wittgenstein in a single year. I am indebted for this information to Miss Sybil E. Crowe.
102 Steiner, op. cit. pp. 77, 86–7.
103 Crowe corresponded with both men (F.O. 371/463/39194). Comment by Crowe, 24 Jan. 1908, also B.D. vi, no. 75.
104 F.O. 371/457, minute by E. Crowe, 13 Jan. 1908.
105 Ibid.; B.D. vi, nos. 80, 81, 84.
106 B.D. vi, nos. 78, 81, 87, 88.
107 B.D. iii, App. A.
108 F.O. 371/70, minute by Crowe, 13 Jan. 1906.
109 B.D. vi, nos. 3, 78, 94.
110 B.D. vii, no. 254.
111 Crowe papers 800/243; Crowe to Dilke, 15 Oct. 1907.
112 F.O. 800/243; Courier de la Conférence, 20 Oct. 1907. The Courier was a newspaper edited by Stead during the Conference. This copy is found in the Crowe papers.
113 B.D. viii, nos. 246 (with minutes), 249, 257, 305–7.
114 F.O. 800/243, attack by Gibson Bowles in Morning Post, 2 May 1915; Justice, p. 5, 14 Oct. 1915.
115 B.D. vi, no. 183
116 Ibid. no. 158.
117 Ibid. no. 174.
118 Ibid. no. 204.
119 Ibid. no. 210.
120 B.D. vi, no. 343.
121 Ibid. no. 208.
122 B.D. vi, no. 344.
123 Ibid, minutes by Mallet, Hardinge and Grey.
124 B.D. vi, no. 392.
125 Hardinge MSS. vol. 92, no. 122, Lady Helen Munro Fergusson to Hardinge, 12 July 1911; no. 211, Chirol to Hardinge, 15 Feb. 1912; vol. 93, no. 11, Chirol to Hardinge, 18 April 1913.
126 Ibid. vol. 93, no. 34, Hardinge to Nicolson, 8 June 1913.
127 Lord Vansittart, Lessons of my Life, p. 152.
129 Hardinge MSS. vol. 93, Nicolson to Hardinge, 21 May 1913. Mallet was made ambassador to Turkey and this appointment was thought to clear the way for Crowe's appointment as permanent under-secretary. Nicolson was to go to Paris.
129 F.O. 800/163, series A, memorandum by Bertie, 19 Dec. 1914.
130 F.O. 800/243, copies of Justice (14 Oct. 1916) and Brittania (12 Nov. 1915); John Simon to Lord Robert Cecil, 17 Nov. 1915; Crowe to Cecil, 18 Nov. 1915; Grey to Crowe, 19 Nov. 1915. Crowe was finally made permanent under-secretary in 1920.
131 Namier, L. B., Avenues of History (London, 1952), p. 87.Google Scholar
132 B.D. v, no. 210.
133 Grey, Twenty-Five Years, p. xviii.
134 Ashton-Gwatkin quoted this in the Dictionery of National Biography. I have not found the original source.
135 Lichnowsky, Prince, Heading for the Abyss (New York, 1928), p. 70.Google Scholar
136 There was a change in Tyrrell's views after 1912 when he began to feel that the German menace had somewhat subsided and that England could pursue a more flexible policy (Hardinge MSS. vol. 93, nos. 5 and 11, Chirol to Hardinge, 10 and 18 April 1913).
137 F.O. 880/91, Tyrrell to Grey, 21 June 1907.
138 Ibid. 12 June 1907.
139 Bertie MSS. series B, Tyrrell to Bertie, 22 Oct. 1909.
140 Von Kühlmann, R., Erinnerungen (Heidelberg, 1949), pp. 339–41, 346.Google Scholar
141 See Namier's denial of Kühlmann's story in Avenues of History, pp. 82–91. Namier contrasts Tyrrell and Crowe, that ‘austere, somewhat rigid, tireless worker’ but claims they were good friends. There were, however, certain frictions between the two men during 1913 and 1914 which may have resulted from the generally unpleasant atmosphere in the office or from differences on policy
142 Lichnowsky, op. cit. p. 70.
143 Hardinge MSS. vol. 93, no. 206, Chirol to Hardinge, 22 May 1914. Other evidence can be found in this volume.
144 Gregory, op. cit. p. 27.
