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School Vaccination Wars: The Rise of Anti-Science in the American Anti-Vaccination Societies, 1879–1929

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  26 April 2019

Abstract

Opposition to school vaccination requirements has a long history in the United States, from the early nineteenth century to today. This essay identifies three distinct phases in organized resistance to school vaccination in the United States between 1827 and 1929. This resistance was associated with a rise in anti-science discourse among leaders of the national anti-vaccination societies and occurred within the context of broader social changes and scientific discoveries during this period.

Type
HES Presidential Address
Copyright
Copyright © History of Education Society 2019 

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References

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2 I use the term anti-science here as defined by Webster's Dictionary: “A set or system of attitudes and beliefs that are opposed to or reject science and scientific methods and principles,” https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/anti-science.

3 The primary sources for this study include contemporary newspapers, journals, books, and the records of the anti-vaccination societies housed in the archives of the Historical Medical Library of the College of Physicians of Philadelphia.

4 Many historians have conflated these organizations to some degree, possibly because of the redundancy in their names. Public health historian John Duffy characterizes the nineteenth-century anti-vaccination movement as “filled with cranks, extremists, and charlatans.” See Duffy, , A History of Public Health in New York City, 1866–1966 (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1974), 152Google Scholar. Also see Meckel, Richard A., Classrooms and Clinics: Urban Schools and the Protection and Promotion of Child Health, 1870–1930 (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2013), 6566Google Scholar; and Kaufman, Martin, “The American Anti-Vaccinationists and their Arguments,” Bulletin of the History of Medicine 41, no. 5 (Sept. 1967), 463–78Google ScholarPubMed. For the relationship between Progressive Era reform and anti-vaccination movements, see Colgrave, James, “'Science in a Democracy': The Contested Status of Vaccination in the Progressive Era and the 1920s,” Isis 92, no. 2 (June 2005), 167–91CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Richard A. Meckel, Classrooms and Clinics; Johnston, Robert D., The Radical Middle Class: Populist Democracy and the Question of Capitalism in Progressive Era Portland, Oregon (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2003)Google Scholar; Reese, William, Power and Promise of School Reform: Grassroots Movements During the Progressive Era (New York: Teachers College Press, 2002), 205–09Google Scholar; and Willrich, Michael, Pox: An American History (New York: Penguin Books, 2011), 246–84Google Scholar.

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14 Synopsis of Meetings of First Anti-Vaccination League of America, AVSA.

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18 Montague R. Levenson to the Honorable the Board of Health, June 5, 1895, AVSA.

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21 “Certificate of Incorporation of the Anti-Vaccination Society of America, December 2, 1885. Incorporated in the City and County of New York,” AVSA. For discussion of women in homeopathy, see Kirschmann, Anne Taylor, Vital Force: Women in American Homeopathy (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2003), 113–17Google Scholar.

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26 M. R. Leverson, “To the President and members of the Anti-Vaccination Society of America, New York, May 18, 1897,” in “Minutes of the Anti-Vaccination Society of America,” 60, AVSA.

27 Vaccination Must Go!The Kneipp Water Cure Monthly 2, no. 11 (Nov. 1901), 295Google Scholar; and M. R. Leverson to “Respected Friend,” May 18, 1898, AVSA. Leverson notes that Blue “is hereby appointed Secretary to the Society.” Anti-Vaccination Scrapbook, 1882–1903. AVSA.

28 M. R. Leverson, “To the President and members of the Anti-Vaccination Society of America, New York, May 18, 1897,” in “Minutes of the Anti-Vaccination Society of America,” 58, AVSA.

29 Blue was a follower of T. V. Gifford, an Indiana physician and AVSA member who ran the Kokomo Invalid Sanitorium and began publishing The Journal of Hygeio-Therapy in 1887. Gifford's journal included information on the benefits of exercise, good nutrition, the water cure, phrenology, and methods of healing with magnets and electricity. By 1892, Gifford had added a small section supporting the anti-vaccination movement. See The Late Dr. T. V. Gifford,” Phrenological Journal and Science of Health 116, no. 5 (Nov. 1903), 164Google Scholar. Blue's appointment to secretary is in Leverson to “Respected Friend,” May 18, 1898, AVSA.

30 “Frank D. Blue Early Identified with Pennsylvania,” (Indiana) Daily Tribune, Feb. 7, 1903, 10. Emma Elizabeth Colket married Frank D. Blue in 1885. For genealogical information, see Rockefeller, Henry Oscar, ed., The Transactions of the Rockefeller Family Association for the Five Years, 1910–1914 with Genealogy (New York: Little & Ives, 1915), 267Google Scholar.

31 Frank D. Blue to M. R. Leverson, May 20, 1898, AVSA.

32 “Think It Is a Crime: Anti-Vaccinationists Small in Numbers but Great in Thought,” Indianapolis Journal, Dec. 13, 1893, 6.

33 “Vaccination Not Compulsory. Important Decision of Judge Taylor of Terre Haute,” Indianapolis Journal, Dec. 23, 1893, 2.

34 “An Important Case,” Indianapolis Journal, March 25, 1894, 4.

35 “Of Local Interest,” Saturday Evening Mail (Terre Haute), December 18, 1897, 6.

36 The Anti-Vaccination Society of America. Special Announcements,” Vaccination 1, no. 10 (December 1898), 14Google Scholar.

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38 Frank D. Blue to M. R. Leverson, May 12, 1898, AVSA.

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40 The Anti-Vaccination Society of America. Officers,” Vaccination 2, no. 12 (Jan. 1900), n.p.Google Scholar Of the eight officers listed in 1900, three were doctors. For the rapid advances in medicine during this period, see Conrad, Peter and Schneider, Joseph W., “Professionalization, Monopoly, and the Structure of Medical Practice,” in The Sociology of Health and Illness: Critical Perspectives, ed. Conrad, Peter (New York: Worth Publishers, 2009), 194–99Google Scholar; and Milstien, Julie B., “Regulation of Vaccines: Strengthening the Science Base,” Journal of Public Health Policy 25 no. 2 (April 2004), 173–89CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed.

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52 Henning Jacobson v. Commonwealth of Massachusetts, 197 U.S. 11 (1905). In Jacobson's case, Justice Harlan ruled that the medical exemption did not apply. For a detailed analysis of this case, see Walloch, Karen L., The Antivaccine Heresy: Jacobson v. Massachusetts and the Troubled History of Vaccination in the United States (New York: University of Rochester Press, 2015)Google Scholar; Gostin, Lawrence O., “Jacobson v. Massachusetts at 100 Years: Police Power and Civil Liberties in Tension,” American Journal of Public Health 95, no. 4 (April 2005), 576–81CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Willrich, Pox: An American History, 285–97.

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58 Membership data calculated from entries in Anti-Vaccination League of Pennsylvania, “Receipts, Oct. 4, 1906-June 11, 1913,” Historical Medical Library of the College of Physicians of Philadelphia.

59 Anti-Vaccination League of Pennsylvania, ”Receipts”; and Cope, Porter F., “Compulsory Vaccination,” Columbus Medical Journal 32, no. 7 (July 1908), 360–62Google Scholar. In this article, Cope describes the Pennsylvania League's success in procuring passage of the Watson Anti-Vaccination Bill, which was vetoed by Governor Edwin S. Stuart.

60 Allen, Vaccine, 102–3.

61 Higgins, Charles, as quoted in “New York City: More Small-Pox,” Journal of the American Medical Association 62, no. 20 (May 16, 1914), 1567Google Scholar. For information about Higgins, see “C. M. Higgins Dies: Ink Manufacturer,” New York Times, Oct. 23, 1929, 27.

62 Karen L. Walloch, “‘A Hot Bed of the Anti-vaccine Heresy’: Opposition to Compulsory Vaccination in Boston and Cambridge, 1890–1905” (PhD diss., University of Wisconsin-Madison, 2007), 7.

63 Lora C. Little to John Pitcairn, as cited in Johnston, Robert D., “The Myth of the Harmonious City: Will Daly, Lora Little, and the Hidden Face of Progressive-Era Portland,” Oregon Historical Quarterly 99, no. 3 (Fall 1998), 273Google Scholar.

64 Johnston, The Radical Middle Class, 192–213. Johnston has done more than any other historian to date to recover the details of Little's activism. Also see Carley Roche, “Lora Little: The Vaccine Liberator,” Feb. 10, 2017, The History of Vaccines, College of Physicians of Philadelphia, https://www.historyofvaccines.org/content/blog/lora-little-vaccine-liberator.

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67 Examples of these advertisements include Lora C. Little, “Nature-Cure Applied by an Expert,” Morning Oregonian, July 17, 1909, 13; Lora C. Little, “Be Your Own Doctor,” Morning Oregonian, Oct. 14, 1913, 15; and “Lora C. Little, Health Expert,” Morning Oregonian, July 3, 1916, 13.

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83 As cited in McNamara, Robert Emmette, Chiropractic, Other Drugless Healing Methods: With Criticism of the Practice of Medicine (Chicago: R. E. McNamara, 1913), 361–62Google Scholar.

84 For discussion of nineteenth-century movements against quarantine and theories of contagion, see Ackerknecht, Erwin H., “Anticontagionism between 1821 and 1867,” International Journal of Epidemiology 38, no. 1 (Feb. 2009), 721CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed; and Cooter, Roger, “Anticontagionism and History's Medical Record,” in The Problem of Medical Knowledge: Examining the Social Construction of Medicine, ed. Treacher, Andrew and Wright, Peter H. (Edinburgh, UK: Edinburgh University Press, 1982), 87108Google Scholar.

85 Frank D. Blue, as cited in “Vaccination Harmful, Is Declaration,” Vancouver (BC) Sun, Oct. 30, 1923, 1.

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87 “Medical Freedom and Vaccination,” Press Democrat (Santa Rosa, CA), Aug. 21, 1913, 5.

88 “Local Branch of Medical League Makes Protest,” Bridgeport (CT) Times and Evening Farmer, Jan. 21, 1922, 10.

89 “Seeks Medical Liberty,” (Washington, DC) Evening Star, Oct. 30, 1923, 39.

90 Colgrave, “Science in a Democracy,” 190.

91 “Former Vandalia Man of Terre Haute Visits City,” Terre Haute Tribune, June 30, 1914, 9.

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