1 Some data listed in Part One of this article were published in Wei Luo, A Pathfinder to U.S. Export Control Laws and Regulations (Hein, 1994). The author thanks Hein for allowing reuse of the data in this article.Google Scholar

2 U.S. Const. art. I, § 8, cl. 3, which reads: “The Congress shall have Power … To regulate Commerce with foreign Nations, and among the several States, and with Indian Tribes.”Google Scholar

3 Ch. 508, 54 Stat. 712 (1940) (expired in 1949).Google Scholar

4 Ch. 11, 63 Stat. 7 (codified as amended at 50 U.S.C. app. §§ 2021–2032 (1964) (expired 1969)).Google Scholar

5 Pub. L. No. 91-184, 83 Stat. 841 (codified as amended at 50 U.S.C. app. §§ 2401–2413 (1976) (expired 1979)).Google Scholar

6 Pub. L. No. 96-72, 93 Stat. 503, (codified as amended at 50 U.S.C. app. §§ 2401–2420 (1988 & Supp. II 1990)).Google Scholar

7 50 U.S.C. app. § 2402 (1988 & Supp. III 1991).Google Scholar

8 50 U.S.C. app. § 2404(b) (1988 & Supp. III 1991).Google Scholar

9 50 U.S.C. app. § 2404(c) (1988 & Supp. III 1991).Google Scholar

10 Peter S. Malloy, Controls on the Export of Military Sensitive Technology: National Security Imperative or U.S. Industry Impediment? 18 Rutgers Computer & Tech. L.J. 841, 845 (1992).Google Scholar

11 50 U.S.C.app. § 2419 (1988).Google Scholar

12 Exec. Order No. 12,730, 3 C.F.R. 305 (1991), reprinted as amended in 50 U.S.C. § 1701 (1988 & Supp. III 1991).Google Scholar

13 Export Controls: House, Senate Conferees Reach Agreement on Legislation to Extend Export Controls, 7 Int'l Trade Rep. (BNA) 1607 (Oct. 24, 1990).Google Scholar

14 Cecil Hunt, Overview of U.S. Export Controls, in Coping with U.S. Export Controls 2004 21, 23 (PLI, 2004). See also the Executive Orders of Continuation of Emergency Regarding Export Control Regulations issued by the presidents between 1991 and 2005 in Presidential Documents.Google Scholar

15 Continuation of Emergency regarding Export Control Regulations: Communication from the President of the United States Transmitting Notification that the Emergency regarding Export Control Regulations Is to Continue in Effect beyond August 17, 2005, pursuant to 50 U.S.C. 1622(d). Y 1.1/7:109–51 (Washington: U.S. G.P.O., 2005). This document is also available at http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgi-bin/getdoc.cgi?dbname=109_cong_documents&docid=f:hd051.109 (last visited Oct. 7, 2007).Google Scholar

16 Pub. L. No. 99-64, 99 Stat. 120 (codified as amended at 50 U.S.C. app. §§ 2401–2410 (1988 & Supp. III 1991)).Google Scholar

17 1985 U.S.C.C.A.N. (99 Stat.) 108–127.Google Scholar

18 Pub. L. No. 100-418, 102 Stat. 1107, (codified as amended at 50 U.S.C. app. §§2401 et seq. (1988 & Supp. III 1991)).Google Scholar

19 Id. and see also John B. Geddes, The 1988 Trade Act and the Effect on United States Export Controls to the People's Republic of China, 1989 B.Y.U. L. Rev. 611, 618–19 (Spring 1989).Google Scholar

20 Pub. L. No. 101-510, 104 Stat. 1485 (codified at 50 U.S.C. app. §§ 2401 et seq. (Supp. III 1991)).Google Scholar

21 Id. and see also Molloy, supra note 15.Google Scholar

22 Pub. L. No. 102-182, 105 Stat. 1233 (codified at 50 U.S.C. app. §2405(m) (Supp. III 1991)).Google Scholar

23 Id.Google Scholar

24 John Heinz, U.S. Strategic Trade: An Export Control System for the 1990s, 7 (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1991). Trading with the Enemy Act, 1917, ch. 40 Stat 411 (1917) (codified as amended at 12 U.S.C. § 95a (1988); 50 U.S.C. app. §§ 1–6, 7–39 (1988 & Supp. III 1991)).Google Scholar

25 Ch. 837, 49 Stat. 1081 (1935).Google Scholar

26 Joseph P. Smaldone, U.S. Commercial Arms Exports: Policy, Process and Patterns, in Coping with U.S. Export Controls 1989, 185, 186–88 (New York, N.Y.: Practicing Law Institute, 1989).Google Scholar

27 Also called Foreign Military Sales Act (Pub.L. 90-629, Oct. 22, 1968, 82 Stat. 1320, codified as 22 U.S.C. §§ 2797b-1 – 2799aa-1).Google Scholar

28 Ch. 724, 60 Stat. 755 (1946), (formerly codified as amended at 42 U.S.C. §§ 1801–1819).Google Scholar

29 Also called McMahon Atomic Energy Act (Aug. 30, 1954, 68 Stat. 919), codified as amended at 42 U.S.C. §§ 2011 et seq. (1988 & Supp. III 1991).Google Scholar

30 10 C.F.R. § 110 (2005).Google Scholar

31 Atomic Energy Act of 1954 (AEA), Ch. 1073, 68 Stat. 715 (1954), codified as 42 U.S.C. §§ 2011–2297 (2005).Google Scholar

32 The number of joined parties is from the United Nations Website at http://www.un.org/Depts/dda/WMD/treaty/.Google Scholar

33 Pub. L. 95-242, 92 Stat. 120 (1978) (codified as amended at 22 U.S.C. §§ 3201 et seq.; 42 U.S.C. §§ 2074 et seq.; 22 U.S.C. § 3282 (1988)).Google Scholar

34 Carlton E. Thorne, Nuclear Non-Proliferation Considerations and the SNEC Process, in Coping with U.S. Export Controls 1989, 313, 313 (New York, N.Y: Practicing Law Institute, 1989).Google Scholar

35 John M. Rooney, the U.S. Department of Energy's Role in Export Control and Nuclear Nonproliferation, in Coping With U.S. Export Controls 1990, 303, 304-06 (New York, N.Y: Practicing Law Institute, 1990).Google Scholar

36 Cuban Democracy Act of 1992 (Pub. L. No. 102-484, Div. A, Title XVII, Oct. 23, 1992, 106 Stat. 2575), codified at 22 USC §§ 6001 to 6010 (2005).Google Scholar

37 Cuban Liberty and Democratic Solidarity (LIBERTAD) Act of 1996 (also called Helms-Burton Act) (Pub. L. No. 104-114, Mar. 12, 1996, 110 Stat. 785), codified at 22 USC §§ 16431, 1643m, 6021 to 6024, 6031 to 6046, 6061 to 6067, 6081 to 6085, 6091 (2005).Google Scholar

38 Pub. L. No. 101-513, Title V, §§ 586, 586a to 586j, 104 Stat. 2047 (1990).Google Scholar

39 Pub. L. No. 102-484, Div. A, Title XVI, 106 Stat. 2571 (1992).Google Scholar

40 Pub. L. No. 104-172, 110 Stat. 1541 (1996).Google Scholar

41 Pub. L. No. 106-178, 114 Stat. 38 (2000).Google Scholar

42 Pub. L. No. 107-228, Div. B, Title XIII, Subtitle D (§§ 1341 to 1345), 116 Stat. 1451 (2002).Google Scholar

43 Pub. L. No. 108-175, 117 Stat. 2482 (2003).Google Scholar

44 Pub. L. No. 108-106, Title II, 117 Stat. 1222 (2003).Google Scholar

45 Pub. L. No. 101-246, 104 Stat. 15 (1990).Google Scholar

46 Pub. L. No. 101-246, § 901, 104 Stat. 15, 901 (1990).Google Scholar

47 61 Fed. Reg. 12734 (Mar. 25, 1996).Google Scholar

48 Eric L. Hirschhorn, the Export Control and Embargo Handbook 6 (New York: Oceana Publications, Inc., 2nd., 2005). See also 15 C.F.R. § 730.1 (2005).Google Scholar

49 22 U.S.C. §§ 2778–2994 (2005).Google Scholar

50 22 C.F.R. § 120.1 (2005).Google Scholar

51 22 D.F.R. § 121.1 (2005).Google Scholar

52 Eric L. Hirschhorn, the Export Control and Embargo Handbook 251 (2005).Google Scholar

53 Id.Google Scholar

54 Exec. Order No. 12735, 3 C.F.R. 313 (1990), reprinted as amended in 50 U.S.C. §§ 1701, et seq (1988 & Supp III 1991).Google Scholar

55 Exe. Order No. 12981, 60 Fed. Reg. 62981-62984 (Dec. 8, 1995).Google Scholar

56 Joseph P. Harahan & Robert J. Bennett, Creating the Defense Threat Reduction Agency 17–18 (2002).Google Scholar

57 5 U.S.C. §§ 701–706 (1988). See also Moller-Butcher v. U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Bureau of Export Admin., 12 F.3d 249 (D.C. Cir. 1994), in which, the D.C. Circuit Court held that the Export Administration Act precluded judicial review of sanctions imposed by the U.S. Department of Commerce on an exporter.Google Scholar

58 Pub. L. No. 100-418, 102 Stat. 1861 (1988).Google Scholar

59 See also http://www.bis.doc.gov/Licensing/STELA4U.htm (last visited Oct. 30, 2007).Google Scholar

60 David Fisher, the First Forty Years: History of the International Atomic Energy Agency 10 (1997).Google Scholar

61 Id. at 143.Google Scholar

62 Articles I and II of the NPT. The fulltext of the NPT is available at http://www.iaea.org/Publications/Documents/Infcircs/Others/infcirc140.pdf (last visited Oct. 30, 2007).Google Scholar

63 Article III of the NPT.Google Scholar

64 The fulltext of the protocol is available at http://www.iaea.org/Publications/-Documents/Infcircs/1998/infcirc540corrected.pdf (last visited Oct. 30, 2007).Google Scholar

65 Cecil Hunt, CoCom and Other International Cooperation in Export Control, in Coping With U.S. Export Controls 1993, 295, 303–4 (New York, N.Y.: Practicing Law Institute, 1993).Google Scholar

66 U.S., Allies Still at Odds Over Substance of New Post – COCOM Regime, Official Says, 11 Int'l Trade Rep. (BNA) 175 (Feb. 2, 1994); Export Controls: US., COCOM Allies Agree to New Easing of Export Curbs on High-Speed Computers, 11 Int'l Trade Rep. (BNA) 63 (Jan. 12, 1994).Google Scholar

67 Michael Lipson, the Reincarnation of CoCom Explaining Post-Cold War Export Controls, the Nonproliferation Review 33 (Winter 1999).Google Scholar

68 Export Controls: Clinton Sends Congress Report on Chemical Weapons Convention, 10 Int'l Trade Rep. (BNA) 1403 (Aug. 25, 1993).Google Scholar

69 See http://ec.europa.eu/external_relations/cfsp/npd/index.htm (last visited Oct. 30, 2007).Google Scholar

70 Id.Google Scholar

71 The fulltext of the strategy is available at http://trade.ec.europa.eu/doclib/html/118532.htm (last visited Oct. 30, 2007).Google Scholar

72 Id.Google Scholar

73 The Council Joint Action of December 17, 1999 on Establishing a European Union Cooperation Program for Nonproliferation and Disarmament in the Russian Federation (the fulltext of the join action is available at http://ec.europa.eu/external_relations/cfsp/npd/cja99.pdf) (last visited Oct. 30, 2007).Google Scholar

74 Id. Article 1.Google Scholar

75 The fulltext of the agreement is available at http://www.kedo.org/pdfs/EstablishmentKEDO.pdf (last visited Oct. 30, 2007).Google Scholar

76 See http://www.kedo.org/index.asp (last visited Oct. 30, 2007).Google Scholar

77 The ECJ delivered preliminary rulings in the case of “Werner” (Case C-70/94) and “Leifer” (case C-83/94), see also http://ec.europa.eu/trade/issues/sectoral/industry/dualuse/legis/index_en.htm (last visited Oct. 30, 2007).Google Scholar

78 See http://ec.europa.eu/trade/issues/sectoral/industry/dualuse/legis/index_en.htm (last visited Oct. 30, 2007).Google Scholar

79 See http://ec.europa.eu/external_relations/cfsp/npd/index.htm (last visited Oct. 30, 2007).Google Scholar

80 Shi-chin Lin, The AQ Khan Revelations and Subsequent Changes to Pakistani Export Controls (2004) (available at http://www.nti.org/e_research/e3_54a.html) (last visited October 30, 2007)). For example, the older laws and administrative regulations related export controls in Pakistan include:Google Scholar

Import and Export (Control) Act, 1950 (Act No. XXXIX of 1950).Google Scholar

Pakistan Nuclear Safety and Radiation Protection (PNSRP) Ordinance, 1984 and PNSRP Regulation, 1990.Google Scholar

Statutory Notification No. SRO-782 (1)/1998 prohibits export of fissionable materials.Google Scholar

Statutory Notification No.SRO-23 (1)/1999 prohibits the export of Anti-Personnel Landmines.Google Scholar

Statutory Notification No.SRO-124 (1)/1999 requires a No Objection Certificate from the Defense Ministry for export of arms, ammunitions, explosives and ingredients.Google Scholar

Statutory Notification No.SRO-482 (1)/2000 and SRO 111 (1)/2004. Issued by the Ministry of Commerce lays down the Export Policy Procedures.Google Scholar

Chemical Weapons Convention Implementation Ordinance, 2000 (Ordinance No. LIV of 2000). This law regulates and controls the import and export of chemicals in acordance with the provisions of CWC and provides for criminal penalties in case of violations.Google Scholar

Pakistan Nuclear Regulatory Authority Ordinance, 2001. Ordinance. Under this Ordinance, PNRA issues the required no objection certificate for import and export of any radioactive materials or radiation sourcesGoogle Scholar

81 Resolution 1540 calls upon all states to implement stringent export control laws on the transfer, shipment, re-transfer and trans-shipment of materials or technology that may be used in the development, manufacture, and proliferation of weapons of mass destruction.Google Scholar

82 The text of India and Pakistan's export control laws can respectively be found at http://meaindia.nic.in/disarmament/07da01.pdf and http://www.iaea.org/Publications/Documents/Infcircs/2004/infcirc636.pdf (last visited Oct. 30, 2007).Google Scholar

83 Ziad Haider & Souvik Saha, Analysis of India and Pakistan's Export Control Laws (available at http://www.stimson.org/southasia/?SN=SA20050-713866) (last visited Oct. 30, 2007).Google Scholar

84 The Export Policy Order, 2007 (SRO 1021(I)/2007) can be found at http://www.commerce.gov.pk/SROs/1021-08102007-EPO.pdf (last visited Oct. 31, 2007).Google Scholar

85 50 U.S.C.A. app. § 2404 Historical Note (West 1991) (Study on National Security Export Controls).Google Scholar

86 These publications are freely available at its website (http://www.middlepowers.org/mpi/pubs.html). Its contact information is: 675 Third Avenue, Suite 315, New York, NY 10017, Tel: 1-646-289-5170, Fax: 1-646-289-5171, Email: mpi@gsinstitute.org, and website at http://www.middlepowers.org/.Google Scholar