Published online by Cambridge University Press: 29 January 2009
The period of the so-called Patriarchal Caliphs continues to be rich with questions which can be investigated only with material which often seems less than adequate. Among the more intriguing questions are those connected with the rôle of Kûfa and the emergence there of the political alignments with which representatives both of the early Umayyad caliphs and of the anti-caliph Ibn al-Zubary had later to deal, viz. the Khawârij, the Shi'a and the tribal ashrâf. The remarks in this article are intended to present a broad picture of conclusions reached in a more detailed study of the formation of these political alignments – conclusions which are based on evidence contained in the earliest Islamic historical sources available to us, notably those of al-Balâdhurî, al-Tabarî, Ibn Sa'd, Ibn A'tham al-Kûfî, Khalîfa b. Khayyât and Nasr b. Muzâhim al-Minqarî.
page 346 note 1 The early history of Islamic schism in Iraq (Ph.D. thesis, University of London 1969).Google Scholar
page 346 note 2 The following abbreviations are used: A'th. = Ibn A'tham, Kitâb al-futûh, 2 vols, MS Topkap1 Saray1 (Ahmet III), no. 2956; BA/MS. = al-Balâdhurî, Ansâb al-ashrâf 2 vols, MS Süleymaniye Kütüphanesi (Reisülküttap Mustafa Efendi), nos. 597, 598; BA. v = al-Balâdhurî, Ansâb al-ashrâf vol. V [pp. 918–1127 of BA/MS.1], ed. Goitein, S. D. F. (Jerusalem, 1936);Google ScholarBF = al-Balâdhurî, Futûh al-buldân, ed. de Goeje, M. J. (Leiden, 1866); IS.Google ScholarIbn, Sa'd, Kitâb al-tabaqât al-kabîr, ed. Sachau, E. et al. (8 vols Leiden, 1905–1917);Google ScholarKhal, . = Khalîfa b.Khayyât, Târîkh vol. I, ed. al-'Umarî, A. D. (al-Najaf, 1386/1967); Tab.Google Scholar = al-Tabarî, , Târîkh al-rusul wa'l-mulûk, ed. de Goeje, M. J. et al., 3 series (Leiden, 1879–1901);Google ScholarWS. = al-Minqarî, Waq'at Sîffîn, ed. Hârûn, A. M. (2nd. ed.Cairo, 1382/1962–1963).Google Scholar
page 347 note 1 Ibn, Manzûr, Lisân al-'arab (Cairo, 1300–1307) vol. III, p. 74, where the sense is further illustrated in a line by al-Kuthâyyir: abâ Marwâna lasta bi-khârijiyyin//wa-laysa qadîmu majdika bi'ntihâli.Google Scholar
page 347 note 2 al-Isfahânî, , Kitâb al-aghânî (Cairo, 1285), vol. XVII, p. 106Google Scholar (cited by Rajkowski, W. W., Early Shi'ism in Iraq (Ph.D. thesis, University of London, 1955), p. 16).Google Scholar
page 348 note 1 Tab. II, pp. 613 ff; BA.v, pp. 224 ff; A'th. I, fols. 226B ff., II, fols. 1 B ff.
page 348 note 2 Tab. II, p. 626; A'th. II. fol. 3 B. Note that BA.v, p. 225 refers also to sikak al-umarâ’ within ‘old’ Kûfas.
page 348 note 3 BA. v, pp. 235−6; A'th. I, fol. 236 A, II, fol. 5 A.
page 349 note 1 E.g. Tab. I, pp. 2225, 2327, 2617.
page 349 note 2 Tab. I, pp. 2412−3, 2496; BF. p. 449; IS. III, pt. i, pp. 213−5; al-Ya'qûbi, Târikh, ed. Houtsma, M. T. (Leiden, 1883), vol. II, p. 175,Google Scholar see also G.-R., Puin, Der Diwân von 'Umar ibn al-Hattâb (Bonn, 1970) and a review of this in BSOAS, XXXIV (1971).Google Scholar
page 350 note 1 Tab. I, p. 2418; BF. p. 384 (and p. 453 for an example of the distribution of the surplus); Ibn, Sallâm, al-Amwâl (Cairo, 1353),Google Scholar nos. 151, 153. See also Dennett, D. C., Conversion and the poll tax in early Islam (Cambridge, Mass., 1950), pp. 20–21.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
page 350 note 2 Tab. I, pp. 2371−2, 2467−9. See also BF. pp. 272−3; Ibn, Sallâm, op. cit., no. 694;Google ScholarAbû, Yûsuf, Kitâb al-kharâj (Cairo, 1302), p. 32;Google Scholar and cf., Dennett, op. cit., p. 26.Google Scholar
page 350 note 3 Tab. I, p. 2752; BF. p. 452 IS. III, pt. i, p. 214.
page 350 note 4 Note e.g. the pacification of Zandaward in 21/642 (Khal. p. 122).
page 351 note 1 IS. VI, pp. 1−3.
page 351 note 2 See Tab. I, pp. 2222, 2236, 2356; BF. pp. 255–6; Khal. p. 101.
page 351 note 3 See Tab. I, pp. 2488ff.
page 351 note 4 ibid. p. 2360; BF. p. 275.
page 351 note 5 IS. VI, p. 4.
page 352 note 1 Tab. 1, p. 2616.
page 352 note 2 ibid. p. 2633.
page 352 note 3 ibid. p. 2805.
page 352 note 4 See particularly ibid. p. 2222.
page 352 note 5 ibid. p. 2414.
page 353 note 1 ibid. pp. 2490–1.
page 353 note 2 ibid. pp. 2222, 2335.
page 353 note 3 See e.g. ibid. p. 2327.
page 353 note 4 ibid. p. 2617.
page 353 note 5 BF. pp. 303, 305. See also Tab. I, p. 2645.
page 354 note 1 ibid. p. 2484.
page 354 note 2 See, e.g. ibid. p. 2677.
page 354 note 3 ibid. p. 2842. Abû Sammâl had fought at Qâdisiyya (BA/MS. II, p. 737; Caskel, W.;Gamharat an-nasab: das genealogische Werk des Hišâm ibn Muhammad al-Kalbî (Leiden, 1966), vol. II, p. 523 (Sim'ân b. Hubayra).Google Scholar
page 354 note 4 Tab. I, pp. 2840–1.
page 354 note 5 Note particularly al-Walîd's reported warning to the Kûfans ‘allâ yuqîmû 'l-hudûd dûna 'l-sulân. fa-innâ nuqayyid al-mukhti' wa-nu'addib al-musîb’ (Tab. I, pp. 2845–6; BA. V, pp. 31−32).
page 354 note 6 Tab. I, p.. 2845.
page 354 note 7 See particularly Tab. I, p. 2849; also pp. 2813, 2840, 2850.
page 354 note 8 BA. V, pp. 30−31 (innamâ anta khâzin lanâ).
page 354 note 9 ibid. p. 36.
page 355 note 1 Tab. I, p. 2805.
page 355 note 2 BF. p. 319; Khal. pp. 131−2.
page 355 note 3 On Âdharbayjân during this period, see BF. pp. 197−8,325 ff.; Tab. I, pp. 2334−5, 2660 ff., 2805−9, II. p. 977;Khal. pp. 132, 135, 138−9; Encyclopaedia of Islam, new ed. in progress (Leiden and London, 1960–), vol. I, p. 636, art. ‘Armîniya’ (M. Canard).Google Scholar
page 355 note 4 For names, see Tab. I, p. 2852; BA. v, p. 32. Note particularly Yazîd b. Qays al-Arhabî and Mâlik al-Ashtar al-Nakha'î.
page 355 note 5 Tab. I, p. 2848.
page 356 note 1 ibid. pp. 2825–6 (wa-ammâ fa-futûh fa-li-awwal man waliyahâ).
page 356 note 2 BF. p. 322.
page 357 note 1 ibid. pp. 328–9.
page 357 note 2 Tab. I, p. 2668.
page 357 note 3 ibid. p. 2927.
page 357 note 4 al-Hamdânî, al-Iklîl, vol. x, ed. Muhibb al-Dîn al-Khatîb(Cairo, 1368), pp. 41 ff, 115.Google Scholar
page 357 note 5 Tab. I, pp. 2891–2. Some of them are mentioned as having been at Kûfa and at al-Rabadha, near Medina, soon afterwards (Tab. I, pp. 2896–7).
page 357 note 6 BF. p. 178.
page 357 note 7 See ibid. pp. 183–4; Tab. I, p. 2867.
page 357 note 8 Abû, ‘Abdallâh Muhammad b. Yahyâ b. Abî Bakr al-Ash'arî al-Mâliqî, al-Tamhîd wa'l-bayân fî maqtal al-shahîd Uthmân, ed. Zâyid, M. Y. (Beirut, 1964), p. 61;Google Scholarcf., Tab. I, p. 2927.Google Scholar
page 357 note 9 ibid. p. 2651.
page 357 note 10 al-Hamdâni, al-Iklîl, vol. x, pp. 172–3.Google Scholar
page 358 note 1 Tab. I, p. 2928 (wa-khalat al-Kûfa min al-ru'asâ' illâ manzû' aw maftûn).
page 358 note 2 ibid. p. 2852.
page 358 note 3 ibid. p. 2853; BA. v, p. 40.
page 358 note 4 Tab. I, pp. 2907–9, 2915–7, 2921; al-Ash'arî, al-Mâliqî, op. cit., pp. 55 ff;Google ScholarIbn, Athîr, al-Kâmil fî ’l-târîkh, ed. Tomberg, C. J. (Leiden, 1851–1876), vol. III, pp. 107–8; BA. v, p. 41;Google Scholar A’th. I, fols. 7 A ff.; al-Isfahânî, , op. cit., vol. xi, pp. 29–30.Google Scholar
page 358 note 5 BA. v, p. 41 A'th. I, fol. 10 A.
page 358 note 6 Tab. I, p. 2928; BA. v, pp. 44–5; A'th. I, fol. 13 A.
page 358 note 7 Tab. I, pp. 2095, 2182, 2294, 2295, 2749.
page 358 note 8 IS. VII, pt. i, pp. 89, 94; Ibn, Sallâm, op. cit., nos. 641−2; BF. pp. 377, 456.Google Scholar
page 359 note 1 Tab. I, pp. 2913, 2920.
page 359 note 2 ibid. pp. 2929, 2934; al-Isfahânî, , op. cit., vol, XI, p. 31;Google Scholaral-'Alî, S.A., al-Tanzîmât al-iqtisâdiyya wa'l-ijtimâ'iyya fî 'l-Basra fî'l-qarn al-awwal al-hijrî (2nd. ed., Beirut, 1969) pp. 167–8.Google Scholar
page 359 note 3 Tab. I, p. 2929; BA. v, pp. 45–6; A'th. I, fols. 13 B-14 A.
page 359 note 4 Note, e.g. that Sa'îd was ‘awwal man wada'a ‘l-'ushûr ‘alâ ‘l-jusûr wa'l-qanâtir’ (al-Maqdisî, , al-Bad' wa'l-târîkh, ed. Huart, C. (Paris, 1899–1919), vol. V. p. 201.Google Scholar
page 359 note 5 Tab. I, pp. 2854−5.
page 360 note 1 Arhab were from the a'râb of Hamdân – see Tab. III, p. 2487; IS. VI, p. 172; Caskel, , op. cit., vol. 2, pp. 47, 66–7.Google Scholar
page 360 note 2 BA. v, pp. 45−6; A'th. I, fols. 13 B-14 A.
page 360 note 3 Tab. I, p. 2936.
page 361 note 1 E.g. ibid. p. 3155.
page 361 note 2 BA/MS. I, pp. 351, 363; WS. p.7.
page 361 note 3 ibid. pp. 3, 5; A'th. I, fol. 44 B; IS. VI, p. 6.
page 362 note 1 Evidence for NaKha'î and other newcomers is provided by Ibn A'tham when he (i) notes the names of a number of Yemeni leaders who came professing their allegiance to ‘Alî when he was at Medina (I, fols. 24 A-B) and (ii) later in his account, gives some of the same names in his list of people killed on ‘Alî's side at the battle of Nahrawân (I, fol. 155 B). Of particular interest are the tribal names Arhabî, Hamdânî, Bajalî, Kindî and Naakh'î, and the information that ‘Alî sent al-Ashtar to welcome these leaders.
page 362 note 2 See e.g. Tab. I, pp. 3261−2; WS. p. 154; BA/MS. I, p. 371; A'th. I, fol. 76B. Note also the reference to Shurayh b. Hâni' al-Madhijî (A'th. I, fol. 94B) and to al-Ashtar as Ashtar as Ashtar Madhhij (WS. p. 14) and as akhû Madhhij (Tab. I, p. 3394).
page 362 note 3 WS. p. 12; A'th. I, fol. 45A; BA/MS. I, p. 333.
page 362 note 4 BA/MS. I, p. 370; WS. p. 205; khal. p. 177.
page 362 note 5 See note I above. References to Kindîs who distinguished themselves at Siff în suggest that Hujr's following included newcomers from B. Baddâ’, B. Hind and B. al-Tumh (see Tab. I, pp. 3307−8; WS. pp. 268, 276−7, 285−6; Caskel, , op. cit. I, pp. 233, 234).Google Scholar
page 362 note 6 Tab. I, p. 3279–80.
page 363 note 1 A'th. I, fol. 51B. See also Tab. I, p.3256.
page 363 note 2 Tab. I, pp. 3350, 3367; BA/MS. I, p. 387.
page 363 note 3 'Alî, b. Abî Tâlib, Kitâb nahj al-balâgha, with the commentary of 'Abd, al-Hamîd b. Hibatallâh, called Ibn, Abî 'l-Hadîd (Cairo, 1329/1911), vol. I, p. 180 (al-Madâ'inî);Google Scholaral-Jâhiz, , 'Risâla fî ‘l-hakamayn wa-taswîb amlr al-mu'minîn ‘Alî b. Abî Tâlib fî fl'lihi, ed. Pellat, C. in al-Mashriq, 52e année (1958), pp. 429–30. On 'Alî's fiscal measures, see further Tab. I, p. 3227; BA/MS. I, pp. 321, 322; al-Ya'qûbî, op. cit., vol. II, p. 213;Google ScholarIbn, Sallâm, op. cit., no. 649; A'th. I, fol. 159A.Google Scholar
page 363 note 4 Tab. I, p. 3330; WS. pp. 489–90; A'th. I, fol. 126B.
page 363 note 5 They are supposed to have numbered 20,000 (see references in note 4 above and cf. WS. p. 188).
page 363 note 6 See e.g. A'th. I, fol. 65B; WS. p. 115; Ibn, al-Athîr, op. cit., vol. III, p. 230. Note also ‘Adî b. Hlâtim's mobilization of 1,200 men in the region of Madâ'in (WS. p. 143).Google Scholar
page 363 note 7 WS. pp. 205−6; Khal. p. 177.
page 363 note 8 Tab. I, pp. 3283, 3289; WS. pp. 208, 232–3 BA/MS. I, p. 373.
page 364 note 1 Tab. I, p. 3304; WS., p. 263.Google Scholar
page 364 note 2 ibid. p. 475; cf., Tab. I, p. 3327.Google Scholar
page 364 note 3 WS., p. 118.Google Scholar
page 364 note 4 E.g. Tab. I, pp. 3273, 3292, 3298, 3223; WS. pp. 196, 246, 248, 354–6.
page 364 note 5 The most important direct evidence for this assessment occurs on the final authority of Shaqîq b. Salama at WS. p. 517, where these people later describe what they had expected to happen, concluding ‘fa-yusammâ (i.e. ‘Alî should be named) amîr6 (the editor's reading amîru makes nonsense) ‘l-mu'minîn min kullin hattâ yuqirrahu ‘l-kitâb alâ manzilatihi’).
page 364 note 6 Almost identical renderings of the document are given in Tab. I, pp. 3336–7; BA/MS. I, p. 382; A'th. I, fols. 131B-132A; WS. pp. 509–11. The differing version given by WS. pp. 504 ff. should be regarded as spurious, for reasons which this writer hopes to give in detail in the near future.
page 365 note 1 See WS. pp. 515, 516 and cf., L. Veccia Vaglieri, ‘Traduzione di passi riguardenti il conflitto ‘Ali-Mu'āwiya e la secessione khārigita’ in Annali, Istituto Universitario Orientale di Napoli, n.s. vol. 5 (1953), pp. 88–92.Google Scholar
page 365 note 2 I am grateful to Professor Serjeant, R. B. for pointing out the pre-Islamic use of the phrase hilif jâmi’ ghayr mufarriqGoogle Scholar (see, e.g. Ibn, Habîb, Kitâb al-munammaq fî akhbâr Quraysh (Hyderabad, 1384/1964), p. 90).Google Scholar
page 365 note 3 Tab. I, p. 3339; WS. pp. 512–3; BA/MS. I, pp. 382–3, 383–4; A'th. I, fol. 132A.
page 365 note 4 Tab. I, p. 3349.
page 365 note 5 ibid. p. 3352.
page 365 note 6 ibid. pp. 3361, 3362; BA/MS. I, pp. 389, 392, 399.
page 366 note 1 Tab. I, pp. 3365, 3367; BA/MS. I, pp. 391, 392, 393–4.
page 366 note 2 Tab. I, p. 3377; BA/MS. I, p. 396.
page 366 note 3 Tab. I, p. 3384, II, p. 17; BA/MS. I, p. 398.
page 366 note 4 Tab. I, pp. 2188, 2245, 2336.
page 366 note 5 Khal, . pp. 180-I.Google Scholar
page 366 note 6 BA/MS. I, pp. 429–30; Ibn, al-Athîr, op. cit., vol. III, pp. 313–14.Google Scholar
page 367 note 1 al-Ya'qûbî, op. cit., vol. II, pp. 258–9, 277;Google Scholaral-'Alî, op. cit., p. 141.Google Scholar
page 367 note 2 al-Jâẖiz, al-‘Uthmâniyya, ed. Hârûn, A. M. (Cairo, 1955), p. 218; but cf. A‘th. I, fol. 159 A.Google Scholar
page 367 note 3 Note his reported remark ‘mâ adrî fî ayyi kitâb allâh tajidûna hâdhâ ‘l-rizq wa'l-'atâ’Google Scholar' (Ibn, ‘Abd al-Hakam, Futûh Mis wa-akhbâruhâ, ed. Torrey, C. C. (New Haven, 1922), p. 101).Google Scholar
