Author's Note: This article was originally part of a D. phil. dissertation written under the supervision of Professor Albert H. Hourani of St. Antony's College, Oxford, to whom my thanks are due.Google Scholar

² English translation in Hurewitz, J. C., Diplomacy in the Near and Middle East (Princeton, 1956), 1, 149–153.Google Scholar

² The non-Muslims were mainly Greek, Orthodox, Greek Catholics, Maronites, and Jews, and a number of other smaller communities. The non-Sunnis were Alawis, Ismailis, Druses, and Matawilah.

³ See for instance Hadīqat al-Akhbār, June 5, 1858; Aug. 7, 1858; Jan. 1, 1859; Oct. 2, 1859; Nov. 17, 1859; Dec. 29, 1859.Google Scholar

⁴ On Butrus al-Bustani see: Hourani, Albert, Arabic Thought in the Liberal Age, 1789–1939 (London, 1962), pp. 99–102, 276 f.;Google ScholarTibawi, A. L., “The American Missionaries in Beirut and Butrus al-Bustani,” St. Antony's Papers No. 16, ed. Hourani, Albert (London, 1963);Google Scholaral-Bustani, Butrus, ed. Dairāt al-Ma 'ārif. Vol. 7, ed. by his Salim, son (Beirut, 1883), pp. 589–593, 599–608;Google Scholaral Muqtataf (Beirut) VIII (1884), 1–7;Google ScholarZaidan, Jurji, Mashāhir al-Sharq 2 (Cairo, 1911), 25–33,Google Scholar where the author drew heavily on the article of al-Muqtataf: Sawāyā, Mikhha'il, al-Mu'allim Butrus at Bustani (Beirut, 1963);Google ScholarSalibi, Kamal S., The Modern History of Lebanon (London, 1965), pp. 144 f;Google ScholarAntonius, George, The Arab Awakening (London, 1938), pp. 47–51.Google Scholar For additional references see Zirikli, Khayr al-Din, A'lām, (Cairo, 1959), 1, 31.Google Scholar

⁵ al-Bustani, Butrus, Khutba fī Ādāb al-'Arab (Beirut, 1859), p. 37.Google Scholar

⁶ On 'Ayn Waraqa see Harik, Iliya, Politics and Change in a Traditional Society: Lebanon, 1711–1845 (Princeton, 1968), pp. 162 ff.;Google Scholaral-Dibs, Yusuf, al-Jami' al-Mufassal fi Tārīkh al-Mawarinah al-Mu'assal (Beirut, 1905), pp. 516 f., 572 f.Google Scholar

⁷ Bustani, Khutba fī Ādāb al-'Arab, p. 37.Google Scholar

⁸ On Bustani and the mission see Tibawi, “The American Missionaries in Beirut”.Google Scholar

⁹ Ibid., p. 166.

¹⁰ Ibid., pp. 167–168.

¹¹ al-Jinān, 7 (1876), 594.Google Scholar

¹² Ibid.

¹³ Ibid., 638.

¹⁴ Ibid. Presumably because of his relations with some missionaries he could not voice those views soon after he left the mission, and allowed some time to pass before doing so.

¹⁵ Bustani, Khutba fī Ādāb al- ' Arab, p. 40.Google Scholar

¹⁶ al-Jinān, 1 (1870), 386; see also 645, 706.Google Scholar

¹⁷ Hurewitz, J. C., Diplomacy in the Near and Middle East, 1, 149.Google Scholar

¹⁸ Bustani, Khutba fī Ādāb al-' Arab.

¹⁹ Ibid., p. 19; see also Nasifal-Yaziji, Majma' al-Bahrain (Beirut, 1856, pp. 311–314, where he complains of the negligence of Arabic by the Arabs.

²⁰ Bustani, Khutba fī Ādāb al-'Arab, pp. 20 f.Google Scholar

²¹ Ibid., pp. 22 f.

²² Ibid., pp. 24.

²³ Nafīr Sūriyya, Feb. 22, 1861.Google Scholar

²⁴ (Beirut, 1867–1870), 2 vols.Google Scholar

²⁵ (Beirut, 1867–1869), 2 vols.Google Scholar

²⁶ Hourani, Arabic Thought in the Liberal Age, p. 100;Google Scholar see also Bustani, Khutba fī Ādāb al'Arab, p. 23.Google Scholar

²⁷ Tibawi, “The American Missionaries, in Beirut,” p. 179.Google Scholar

²⁸ In an address to the public signed by Bustani, published in hadīqat al-Akhbār, Dec. 22, 1862. The emphasis is mine.Google Scholar

²⁹ In the Foreword for Qutr al-Muhīt he added, “to render its learning easier is the desire of those who are distinguished by patriotic enthusiasm and Arabic zeal”.Google Scholar

³⁰ Nafīr Sūriyya Feb. 22, 1861.Google Scholar

³¹ Cf. Hourani, Arabic Thought in the Liberal Age, p. 100.Google Scholar

³² Bustani, Khutba fī Ādāb al-īqat al-Arab, p. 17.Google Scholar

³³ Ibid., pp. 31 f.

³⁴ Ibid., pp. 34 ff.

³⁵ see below, p. 294.Google Scholar

³⁶ Ibid.

³⁷ Hadīqal al-Akhbār, Feb. 23, 1860.Google Scholar

³⁸ Ibid.; see also Tibawi, “The American Missionaries in Beirut,” p. 168.Google Scholar

³⁹ Printed “at the expense of the 'Umda”. This edition saw four impressions in Beirut between 1860 and 1887. See Sarkis, Yusuf, Mu'jam al-Matbuāt (Cairo, 1928), p. 1616.Google Scholar

⁴⁰ Yaziji, Nasif was the most famous. Among others of less fame, for instance, were Yuhanna Abkarius who published in the 1850s two books on Arabic literature: Nihayat al-'Arab fī Akhbār al- 'Arab (Marseilles, 1852),Google Scholar and Rawdāt al-Adab fī Tabaqāt Shu‘arā’ al- 'Arab (Beirut, 1858).Google Scholar

⁴¹ The names of the members in Hadīqat al-A khbār, Feb. 23, 1860. Of these, Khalil Khuri was in his middle twenties, Husain Baihum in his late twenties, Ibrahim al-Ahdab and Niqola Naqqash in their mid-thirties, and Michael Mudawwar in his late thirties.Google Scholar

⁴² Hadīqat al-A khbār, Jan. 7 and Jan. 28, 1868.Google Scholar

⁴³ The names of the founders in al-Jawàib, Feb. 11, 1868.Google Scholar

⁴⁴ de Tarazi, Phillippe, Tārīkh al-Sahāfa al- 'Arahiyya (Beirut, 1913–1929), 1, 75–77.Google Scholar See also Tiabawi, , A Modern History of Syria (London, 1969) p. 160.Google Scholar

⁴⁵ It may not be irrelevant to add that Cairo under Ismail started to develop from the end of the 1860s to become as well a major center of Arabic “secular” culture. Many Syrians, the disciples of Bustani and others, contributed considerably to the movement there. See Radwan, Abu al-Futouh, Tārīkh Matba'at Bulāq (Cairo, 1953), pp. 194 and 204;Google Scholar also al-Jawàib, Mar. 22, 1870.Google Scholar

⁴⁶ al-Jinān, 1 (1870), 674.Google Scholar

⁴⁷ According to Tarazi, , Tārīkh al-Sahāfa, 1, 94, thirteen issues were published, but only the first eleven are available (appeared between Sept. 1860 and April 1861).Google Scholar

⁴⁸ Hourani, Arabic Thought in the Liberal Age, p. 101.Google Scholar

⁴⁹ Nafīr Suriyya, Sept. 29, 1860.Google Scholar

⁵⁰ Ibid., Oct. 25, 1860.

⁵¹ Ibid., Jan. 14, 1861.

⁵² Ibid., Oct. 25, 1860.

⁵³ Ibid., Nov. 10, 1860; Feb. 22, 1861.

⁵⁴ al-Muqtataf, 8, 6.Google Scholar

⁵⁵ On it see al-Jinān, 4 (1873), 626–629;Google Scholaral-Dibs, , Tārīkh Suriyya (Beirut, 1893–1905, 8, 779;Google Scholar and al-Khuri, Shakir, Majma' al-Masarrāt (Beirut, 1908), pp. 114 f.Google Scholar

⁵⁶ al-Jinān, 7 (1876), 595.Google Scholar

⁵⁷ Ibid., 4 (1873), 627; see also 1 (1870), 70.

⁵⁸ Ibid., 4 (1873), 627; Hadīqat al-Akhbār, June 16, 1864.

⁵⁹ al-Muqtataf, 8, 3;Google ScholarZaidan, , Mashāhīr al-Sharq, 2, 27.Google Scholar

⁶⁰ Hadīqat al-Akhbār, June 16, 1864;Google Scholar see also Tibawi, “The American Missionaries in Beirut,” p. 171.Google Scholar

⁶¹ Zaidan, , Mashāhīr al-Sharq, 2, 27.Google Scholar

⁶² al-Muqtataf, 8, 3.Google Scholar

⁶³ See, for instance, the comment by Tibawi on the Foreword to Bustani's Miftāh al-Misbāh (Beirut, 1862)Google Scholar in Tibawi, “The American Missionaries in Beirut,” p. 170. Bustani also dedicated Muhīt al-Muhīt to Sultan Abdulaziz.Google Scholar

⁶⁴ Al-Jinān, 1 (1870), 335;Google ScholarZaidan, , Mashāhīral-Sharq, 2, 27.Google Scholar

⁶⁵ Tarazi, , Tārīkh al-Sahdfa, 2, 10.Google Scholar

⁶⁶ See al-Jin¯n, 4 (1873), 363: “His beneficial hand leveled the way for ‘al-Jinan’… and it was he who planted the trees of ‘al-Jannah’; cf. also I (1870). 1.Google Scholar

⁶⁷ Rāpshid Pasha was foreign minister in the government that deposed Sultan Abdulaziz in 1876. Two weeks after the coup he was killed along with Hüseyn Avni Pasha by Hasan the Circassian. On Rāshid's life see al-Jinān, 7 (1876), 473–475;Google Scholaral-Jawāib, Sept. 6, 1876;Google ScholarSicill-i Osmani, 2, 356–357.Google Scholar

⁶⁸ On al-Jinān, see also Hourani, Arabic Thought in the Liberal Age, pp. 263 and 274.Google Scholar

⁶⁹ al-Jinān, 1 (1870), 515–516.Google Scholar

⁷⁰ Ibid.

⁷¹ Ibid., 3 (1872), 433; 4 (1873), 363.

⁷² a1-Jawāib, Oct. 11 and Dec. 12, 1871.Google Scholar

⁷³ al-Jinān, 7 (1876), 474;Google Scholaral-Jawāib, Sept. 6, 1876.Google Scholar

⁷⁴ al-Jinān, 3 (1872), 541–542.Google Scholar

⁷⁵ Ibid., p. 579.

⁷⁶ al-Jawāib, Oct. 29, 1873.Google Scholar

⁷⁷ Ibid., July 2, 1873.

⁷⁸ al-Jinān, 1 (1870), 385–387.Google Scholar

⁷⁹ Ibid., p. 386.

⁸⁰ See, for instance, the article by Sheikh Tahir al-Jazairi of Damascus which attacks Bustani this question, in al-Jawāib, Sept. 17, 1872.Google Scholar

⁸¹ al-Jinān, 1 (1870), 641.Google Scholar

⁸² Ibid., pp. 645, 706.

⁸³ Ibid., p. 643.

⁸⁴ Ibid., pp. 674, 675.

⁸⁵ Ibid., p. 673.

⁸⁶ Ibid., p. 642; see also Hourani, Arabic Thought in the Liberal Age, p. 99.

⁸⁷ al-Jinān, 1 (1870), 675.Google Scholar

⁸⁸ Ibid.

⁸⁹ See Kuran, E., “Ottoman Historiography in the Tanzimat Period,” in Lewis, Bernard and Holt, P., eds., Historians of the Middle East (London, 1962), pp. 427–428;Google Scholar see also Davison, Roderic, Reform in the Ottoman Empire, 1856–1876 (Princeton, 1963), pp. 177 f.Google Scholar

⁹⁰ al-Jinān, 1 (1870), 646.Google Scholar

⁹¹ Ibid., p. 644.

⁹² Ibid. In this view Bustani had perhaps been inspired or at least encouraged by Rāshid Pasha the Vali. We have no direct evidence for that, however, and the views of Rāshid Pasha on subject are obscure. But the fact that those ideas were expressed in the time of Rāshid's governorship only, and that he assisted in the appearance of al-Jin¯n, moves us to imply his acquiescence them.

⁹³ Davison, Reform in the Ottoman Empire, pp. 290–291.Google Scholar See also Mardin, Serif, The Genesis Young Ottoman Thought (Princeton, 1962), p. 66.Google Scholar

⁹⁴ Davison, Reform in the Ottoman Empire, pp. 290–291.Google Scholar See also Sir Elliot, Henry, Some Revolutions and Other Experiences (London, 1922), p. 228, where he recorded that Midhat Pasha spoke of “decentralization”.Google Scholar

⁹⁵ al-Jinān, 5 (1874), 110.Google Scholar

⁹⁶ Ibid.

⁹⁷ Ibid.

⁹⁸ Ibid., p. 111.

⁹⁹ Ibid.; cf. 4 (1873), 794–795.

¹⁰⁰ Ibid., 5 (1874), 111.

¹⁰¹ Ibid.

¹⁰² Ibid.

¹⁰³ Ibid., 6 (1875), 577.

¹⁰⁴ Ibid., 7 (1876), 650.

¹⁰⁵ al-Jinān, 2 (1871), 573–574;Google Scholarcf. Zolondek, L., “Socio-Political Views of Salim al-Bustani (1848–1884),” Middle Eastern Studies, 2, 2 (01. 1966), 150.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

¹⁰⁶ al-Jinān, 4 (1873), 362.Google Scholar

¹⁰⁷ Ibid., 5 (1874), 111.

¹⁰⁸ Ibid., 2 (1871), 141.

¹⁰⁹ Ibid., p. 789.

¹¹⁰ Ibid., 3 (1882), 758; of. Zolondek, “Socio-Political Views of Salim al-Bustani,” p. 147.

¹¹¹ al-Jinān, 2 (1871), 142; 6 (1875), 195.Google Scholar

¹¹² Ibid., 7 (1876), 434.

¹¹³ Ibid., 12 (1881), 578.

¹¹⁴ Ibid., 14 (1883), 130–131, 193–194.

¹¹⁵ Ibid., 2 (1871), 574.

¹¹⁶ Ibid., 1(1870), 614.

¹¹⁷ Ibid., 2 (1871), 180; 5 (1874), 35.

¹¹⁸ Ibid., 1(1870), 388; of. Zolondek, “Socio-Political Views of Salim al-Bustani,” p. 149.

¹¹⁹ al-Jinān, 11 (1880), 321; 14 (1883), 130–131;Google Scholar see also Zolondek, “Socio-Political Views of Salim al-Bustani,” p. 150.Google Scholar

¹²⁰ See for instance Antonius, The Arab Awakening, pp. 41 ff.Google Scholar

¹²¹ Jessup, Henry H., Fifty-Three Years in Syria (New York, 1910), 22, 483;Google Scholar of. Rustum, Asad, Lubnān fi 'Ahd a1-Mutasarrifiyya (Beirut, 1973) p. 273.Google Scholar