Published online by Cambridge University Press: 12 September 2012
In recent years the term ‘humanitarian diplomacy’ has become fashionable among humanitarian organizations in general, and within the Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement in particular. However, the very idea of ‘humanitarian diplomacy’ is not uncontroversial, owing to the imprecise and contested nature of the term, and to its unclear operational application. The present article proposes to explore the definitions and scope of action of humanitarian diplomacy, as well as some of the challenges that it faces, with a view to preparing the way for its eventual recognition by the international community.
1 Deborah Mancini-Griffolli and André Picot, Humanitarian Negotiation: A Handbook for Securing Access, Assistance and Protection for Civilians in Armed Conflicts, Geneva, Centre for Humanitarian Dialogue, 2004, p. 12.
2 Christopher Lamb, ‘Humanitarian diplomacy’, 26 June 2008, available at: http://www.ifrc.info/en/news-and-media/opinions-and-positions/speeches/2008/humanitarian-diplomacy (last visited December 2011).
3 Minear, Larry and Smith, Hazel (eds), Humanitarian Diplomacy: Practitioners and Their Craft, Tokyo, United Nations Press, 2007Google Scholar.
4 See International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRC), Strategy 2020: Humanitarian Diplomacy Policy, Nairobi, December 2009Google Scholar.
5 Marion Harroff-Tavel, ‘The humanitarian diplomacy of the International Committee of the Red Cross’, 1 January 2006, available at: http://www.icrc.org/eng/assets/files/other/humanitarian-diplomacy-icrc.pdf (last visited December 2011).
6 For a review of classical and new tools of international diplomacy, see the website and various activities of the Diplo Foundation towards more inclusive and effective diplomacy, available at: http://www.diplomacy.edu (last visited 21 July 2012).
7 M. Harroff-Tavel, above note 5, p. 4.
8 IFRC, World Disasters Report 2010: Focus on Urban Risk, Imprimerie Chirat, Lyon, France, 2010Google Scholar. Human Security Report Project, The Human Security Report 2009/2010: The Causes of Peace and the Shrinking Costs of War, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2011, p. 159Google Scholar. United Nations University and the Institute for Environment and Human Security, World Risk Report, 2011, Bonn, 2011Google Scholar.
9 The recently founded International Association of Humanitarian Studies has organized the first two World Conferences on Humanitarian Studies, in 2009 and 2011 respectively.
10 L. Minear and H. Smith, above note 3, Introduction, p. 1.
11 IFRC, above note 4, p. 25.
12 Whitall, Jonathan, ‘“It's like talking to a brick wall”: humanitarian diplomacy in the occupied Palestinian territory’, in Progress in Development Studies, Vol. 9, No. 1, January 2009, p. 38CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
13 M. Harroff-Tavel, above note 5, p. 5.
14 See, for example, Art. 126 of the Third Geneva Convention; Art. 76 and Art. 143 of the Fourth Geneva Convention.
15 See, for example, Arts. 9/9/9/10 of Geneva Conventions I to IV.
16 IFRC, 23rd Session of the Governing Board, 13–15 April 2011.
17 Holzgrefe, J. L. and Keohane, Robert O. (eds), Humanitarian Intervention: Ethical Legal and Political Dilemmas, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2003, pp. 175–204CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
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19 D. Mancini-Griffolli and A. Picot, above note 1.
20 See J. L. Holzgrefe and R. O. Keohane, above note 17.
21 See Awotana, Adenrele (ed.), Rebuilding Sustainable Communities for Children and their Families Disasters, Cambridge Scholars Publishing, Newcastle, 2010Google Scholar. See also Gonsalves, Julian and Mohan, Priyanka (eds), Strengthening Resilience in Post-disaster Situations, Academic Foundation together with International Development Research Centre Canada, New Delhi, 2011Google Scholar. Justin Veuthey, ‘Inequalities and natural disasters: vulnerability and social capital’, Masters thesis, Geneva, Graduate Institute of Development Studies, 2007.
22 Fondation française de Ordre de Malte, ‘Diplomatie humanitaire et gestion des crises internationales’, Proceedings of the International Conference on Humanitarian Diplomacy held at UNESCO, 27–18 January 2011, Paris, pp. 189–194.
23 See, for example, Article 3 common to the four Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949 or Article 70(1) of Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949 and relating to the protection of victims of international armed conflicts of 8 June 1977 (Additional Protocol I).
24 See ‘Strategy 2009–12 of the Swiss Federal Department of Foreign Affairs on the protection of civilians in armed conflict’, available at: http://www.eda.admin.ch/eda/en/home/topics/human/hum/proci.html (last visited December 2011). See also 31st International Conference of the Red Cross and Red Crescent, Resolution ‘4-year action plan for the implementation of international humanitarian law’, 31IC/11/R2, available at: http://www.icrc.org/eng/assets/files/publications/icrc-002-1130.pdf (last visited December 2011).
25 On the significance of the International Conferences of the Red Cross and Red Crescent for the elaboration and development of IHL, including the Geneva Conventions and their Additional Protocols, see Bugnion, François, ‘The International Conference of the Red Cross and Red Crescent: challenges, key issues and achievements’, in International Review of the Red Cross, Vol. 91, No. 876, 2009, pp. 688–689CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
26 See Art. 9 of the Statutes of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement (adopted by the 25th International Conference of the Red Cross at Geneva in 1986, amended in 1995 and 2006).
27 IFRC, Strengthening Disaster Laws, Working Document, Geneva, August 2011Google Scholar. See also IFRC, above note 18; Fisher, David, ‘Domestic regulation of international humanitarian relief in disasters and armed conflict: a comparative analysis’, in International Review of the Red Cross, Vol. 89, No. 866, 2007, pp. 345–372CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
28 IFRC, ‘About the Disaster Law programme’, available at: http://www.ifrc.org/en/what-we-do/idrl/about-idrl/ (last visited December 2011).
29 United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), 2009 Annual Report: Bureau for Crisis Prevention and Recovery, United Nations, New York, 2009, p. 37Google Scholar.
30 IFRC, ‘Law and legal issues in international disaster response: a desk study’, Geneva, 2007, p. 21.
31 Professor Hiroshi Higashiura is currently the Director of the Japanese Red Cross Society's research institute on international humanitarian issues in Tokyo.
32 IFRC, Humanitarian Diplomacy, Part II, Guidance Series, Geneva, December 2011Google Scholar.
33 Ibid., p. 13.
34 IFRC, above note 18.
35 IFRC, Humanitarian Diplomacy, Part I: General Guidelines for the Practice of Humanitarian Diplomacy, Guidance Series, Geneva, December 2011Google Scholar.
36 IFRC and OCHA, Model Act for the Facilitation and Regulation of International Disaster Relief and Initial Recovery Assistance, Pilot Version, Geneva and New York, November 2011Google Scholar.
37 See, for example, IFRC, Certificate Program in Humanitarian Diplomacy (new), Red Cross Red Crescent Learning Program together with Diplo Foundation, http://www.ifrc.org/learning (last visited December 2011). ICRC and Swiss Foreign Ministry, Humanitarian Access in Situations of Armed Conflict: Field Manual, presented at the 31st International Conference of the Red Cross and Red Crescent, 27–29 November 2011, Geneva.
38 An example of a national coalition is the Canadian Humanitarian Coalition, grouping Oxfam Canada, Oxfam Québec, Care, and Save the Children. The Tsunami Evaluation Coalition (TEC) platform was set up in London in 2005–2006 to enhance collaborations among major NGOs conducting recovery projects in the wake of the Indian Ocean tsunami.
39 Human Security Centre, The Human Security Report 2009/2010: The Causes of Peace and The Shrinking Costs of War, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2011, p. 159Google Scholar.
40 Report of the Secretary-General on the Protection of Civilians in Armed Conflict, UN Doc. S/2010/579, 10 November 2010, p. 2.
41 See ‘South Sudan facing severe food shortages, UN agencies warn’, The Guardian, 29 September 2011, available at: http://www.guardian.co.uk/global-development/2011/sep/29/south-sudan-facing-food-shortages (last visited December 2011). Lisa Grande is the UN Deputy Resident and Humanitarian Coordinator for Southern Sudan.
42 See, for instance, Modirzadeh, Naz K., Lewis, Dustin A., and Bruderlein, Claude, ‘Humanitarian engagement under counter-terrorism: a conflict of norms and the emerging policy landscape’, in International Review of the Red Cross, Vol. 93, No. 883, September 2011, pp. 623–647CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
43 See the obligations spelled out in Art. 3 common to the four Geneva Conventions and Additional Protocol II, as well as the ICRC Customary Law study.
44 Kellenberger, Jakob, ‘Strengthening legal protection for victims of armed conflicts: the ICRC study on the current state of international humanitarian law’, in International Review of the Red Cross, Vol. 92, No. 879, September 2010, p. 800CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
45 J. L. Holzgrefe and R. O. Keohane, above note 16, pp. 175–204.
46 UN Security Council Resolution 1973, 17 March 2011, Art. 6.
47 UN Security Council Resolution 1970, 26 February 2011, Art. 9.
48 ICRC, ‘Libya: humanitarian challenges six months on’, Interview with Boris Michel, 8 August 2011, available at: http://www.icrc.org/eng/resources/documents/interview/2011/libya-interview-2011-08-12.htm (last visited December 2011). Boris Michel is the ICRC's head of operations for North and West Africa.
49 Bruno Pommier, ‘The use of force to protect civilians and humanitarian actions: the case of Libya and beyond’, in this edition.
50 See, for instance, the Montreux document on private military and security companies (PMSCs), which summarizes the legal framework that has a bearing on PMSCs in times of armed conflict, available at: http://www.eda.admin.ch/psc; and the more recent International Code of Conduct for Private Security Service Providers (ICoC), available at: http://www.icoc-psp.org/ (both last visited December 2011).
51 World Economic Forum, Global Risks 2010: A Global Risk Network Report, a World Economic Forum Report in collaboration with CITI, MMC, Swiss Re, Wharton School Risk Centre and Zurich Financial Services, Geneva, January 2010Google Scholar.
52 Ibid., p. 89.
53 IFRC, above note 30, p. 13.
54 See, for instance, Terry, Fiona, ‘The International Committee of the Red Cross in Afghanistan: reasserting the neutrality of humanitarian action’, in International Review of the Red Cross, Vol. 93, No. 881, March 2011, pp. 173–188CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
55 An example of the impact on humanitarian actors is Wikileaks and, for instance, the release of confidential ICRC negotiations.
56 See, for instance, the Sphere Project: http://www.sphereproject.org; or the different contributions of ALNAP, available at: http://www.alnap.org (both last visited December 2011).
57 International Association for Humanitarian Studies (IAHS), Professionals in Humanitarian Assistance and Protection (PHAP), Network on Humanitarian Assistance-International Association of Universities (NOHA), Enhancing Learning and Research for Humanitarian Assistance (ELRHA), Active Learning Network for Accountability and Performance in Humanitarian Action (ALNAP). See also: ELRHA, Professionalising the Humanitarian Sector: A Scoping Study, Boston and London, 2011Google Scholar, available at: http://www.elrha.org (last visited December 2011); Geneva Center for Education and Research in Humanitarian Action, Humanitarian Studies 2010: University Training and Education in Humanitarian Action, Geneva, 2010Google Scholar.
58 See, for example, the pilot initiatives in disaster management training set up by particularly innovative educational institutions such as BRAC University, Bangladesh, and the All India Disaster Management Institute, India.
59 A pilot training programme in humanitarian diplomacy and advocacy has been tested by the Geneva-based Diplo Foundation together with the IFRC during the first semester of 2012.
60 See Mani, Rama and Weiss, Thomas G. (eds), Responsibility to Protect: Cultural Perspectives in the Global South, Routledge, London, 2011Google Scholar. See also Veuthey, Michel, ‘Diplomatie humanitaire: préserver les chances de la diplomatie humanitaire au moment où elle est la plus nécessaire’, in La Revue Géopolitique, 2 October 2011, available at: http://www.diploweb.com/Diplomatie-humanitaire.html (last visited December 2011)Google Scholar.
