1 Wright, John, ‘Aeroplanes and airships in Libya, 1911–1912’, Maghreb Review, III (1978).Google Scholar‘Notes on the employment of military dirigibles in the Libyan War, 1911’, trans, from Annuario dell’ Aeronautica (1914)Google Scholar, Public Record Office, Kew. AIR 1/625/17/30. All archival references are to the British Public Record Office unless otherwise stated. Observation balloons were used by the Royal Engineers in the British occupation of Bechuanaland in 1885, in the conquest of the Sudan, and in the early stages of the South African War 1899–1902.

2 Neissel, General, ‘Le rôle militaire de l'aviation au Maroc’, Revue de Paris, XXXIII (Feb. 1926).Google Scholar There is a splendid photograph of a reconnaissance aircraft flying over a line of French cavalry in Porch, Douglas, The French Conquest of Morocco (New York, 1983).Google Scholar

3 Tremearne, A. J. N., The Niger and the Western Sudan. The West African's Notebook (London, n.d. [c. 1914]), 126.Google Scholar

4 ‘Proposed aircraft expedition to Somaliland’, by W. S. Churchill, secret, 20 March 1914, CAB 37/119/47. ‘Somaliland: Report on the possibility of using aircraft’, by Lt.-Comm. F. L. M. Boothby and Lt. R. B. Davies, 27 June 1914, AIR 1/625/17/6.

5 The British had three aircraft in Egypt in Nov. 1914 when the Ottoman Empire entered the war. In 1916 this had increased to 36: AIR 18/1. The Germans had sent two aircraft in crates to West Africa in 1914, while another two were in South-West Africa in 1915.

6 On East Africa see Patience, Kevin, ‘The first aerial reconnaisance in East Africa’, Kenya Past and Present, X (1979)Google Scholar; Walmsley, Leo, ‘An airman's experiences in East Africa’, Blackwood's Magazine, no. 206 (1919), 633–652, 788–810, and no. 207 (1920), 53–69, 189–209.Google ScholarJones, H. A., The War in the Air. Being the Story of the part played in the Great War by the Royal Air Force, III (Oxford, 1931).Google Scholar

7 Jones, , War in the Air, V (Oxford, 1935), 166–170.Google Scholar The French used aircraft against rebels in Niger in 1917.

8 For the background see Theobald, A. B., ’AliDinar. Last Sultan of Darfur, 1898–1916 (London, 1965), 189–193.Google ScholarOn the air action see Jones, , War in the Air, V, 170–177Google Scholar; Slessor, Sir John, The Central Blue. Recollections and Reflections (London, 1956), 643–655Google Scholar; idem, These Remain. A Personal Anthology (London, 1969), 49–57.Google Scholar Similar operations were begun on the North-West Frontier of India in December 1915; see Young, A. J., ‘Royal Air Force, North West Frontier, India 1915–39’, Journal of the Royal United Services Institution, CXXVII (March 1982).Google Scholar

9 Report by Maj. Ring, J. S. from Fayum’, March 1919Google Scholar, App. 5 and other reports in WO 95/4455. Caddy, Peter, ‘British policy and Egyptian unrest, 1914–1920’ (Ph.D. thesis, University of London, 1982), 169, 173.Google Scholar

10 ‘Egyptian operations, 1919’, Comm. R.A.F., Middle East to Sec. Air Ministry, 17 April 1919, AIR 1/21/15/1/102.

11 ‘Status of the R.A.F. in Egypt’, Memorandum by Air Staff, Oct. 1922, AIR 9/13/5. By 1922 the R.A.F. had three squadrons and a flying school in Egypt.

12 The peace strength of aircraft in French Morocco was reported as 80 aircraft. By June 1925 this was reported to have risen to 112 aircraft, with 160 heavy bombers also available. ‘The air aspect of the situation in Morocco. Note by Air Staff, 15 July 1925, AIR 9/41/5. In 1925 the Spanish had 88 land-based aircraft and 12 seaplanes in Morocco. In the final battle against the Rifians the five French and Spanish columns were supported by eight squadrons of Spanish and ten squadrons of French planes. Woolman, David S., Rebels in the Rif. Abd el Krim and the Rif Rebellion (Stanford, 1968), 190–205.Google Scholar

13 On the R.A.F. role in the Middle East and India see Beaumont, Roger A., ‘Policing the Empire’, Aerospace Historian (Jan. 1979), 84–90Google Scholar; Scovill, Elmer Berman, ‘The Royal Air Force, the Middle East, and Disarmament, 1919–1934’ (Ph.D. thesis, Michigan State University, 1973)Google Scholar; Sluglett, Peter, Britain in Iraq 1914–1932 (London, 1976), ch. 7Google Scholar; Gavin, R. J., Aden under British rule 1839–1967 (London 1975), ch. 11.Google Scholar See also Waldie, Derek J. P., ‘Relations between the Army and the Royal Air Force, 1918–1939’ (Ph.D. thesis, University of London, 1980)Google Scholar, especially pp. 35 ff. on the Somaliland operations in 1920 and pp. 154–60 on the Sudan in the late 1920s.

14 For examples of African responses to aircraft see von Lettow-Vorbeck, G., My reminiscences of East Africa (London, 1920), 80–81Google Scholar; Perham, Margery, Ten Africans (London, 1936), 144–145Google Scholar; and Nolan, F. P., ‘Christianity in Unyamwezi, 1878–1928’ (Ph.D. thesis, University of Cambridge, 1977), 310.Google Scholar

15 E.g. ‘I am of the opinion that for a given carrying weight of aeroplane high explosive bombs or shrapnel bombs are superior to any other form of frightfulness, except gas. If mustard gas can be accepted for this type of savage warfare, it should prove more efficient than any other known form of frightfulness.’ ‘Suggested system of attack against uncivilized tribes’, Minute by Director of Research, 18 Dec. 1922, which although concerned mainly with India has wider implications, AIR 5/264.

16 See Townsend, Charles, The British campaign in Ireland 1919–1921 (Oxford, 1975), 170–171.Google Scholar

17 F. S. Malan to Gov. Gen., secret minute, 3 April 1919, AIR 1/21/15/1/101. The British supplied an aircraft. The South African Aviation Corps was established in February 1920.

18 For the background see Davies, Robert, ‘The 1922 strike on the Rand. White labour and the political economy of South Africa’, in Peter, C. W. Gutkind, Robin, Cohen and Jean, Copans (eds.), African Labour History (London, 1976), ch. 3.Google Scholar

19 On the Bondelswarts Rising 1922 see Freislich, Richard, The last Tribal War. A History of the Bondelswarts Uprising which took place in South West Africa in 1922 (Cape Town, 1964), especially pp. 46–65Google Scholar; Davey, Arthur M., The Bondelswarts Affair: A Study of Repercussions (Pretoria, 1961).Google Scholar On the Reheboth revolt of 1925, Pearson, Patrick, ‘The Reheboth Rebellion’, in Bonner, P., (ed.), Working Papers in South African Studies, 11 (Johannesburg, 1981), 31–51.Google Scholar For the Ovambo rising in 1932 see ‘Air control in Ovamboland’, J.R.U.S.I., LXXXIII (Nov. 1938), 823–829.Google Scholar For a report of the S.A.A.C. bombing the mountain stronghold of the ‘rebel’ chief Sekonela on Mt. Gaba, N. Transvaal, see Daily Herald (London), 25 June 1930.Google Scholar The use of air power to intimidate people was not always successful. See the response by the followers of Wellington Buthelezi in the Transkei in 1930 who expected that American blacks ‘ were shortly coming in aeroplanes to emancipate Bantu’. Hunter, Monica, Reaction to Conquest (London, 1964 edn.), 570–571.Google Scholar

20 ‘Air control in undeveloped countries’, Air Staff Memorandum No. 41, conf. I Jan. 1929, AIR 20/674.Google Scholar

21 ‘The part of the Air Force of the future in Imperial Defence’, confidential, Feb. 1921Google Scholar, AIR 9/15/2.

22 Smith, Malcolm, ‘The Royal Air Force 1932–37’, Journal of Contemporary History, XII (1977), 156.Google Scholar

23 See Sykes, Sir Frederick, From Many Angles: an Autobiography (London, 1942), 262 ff.Google Scholar; appendix v, pp. 544–54, ‘Review of air situation and strategy for the information of the Imperial War Cabinet’, C.A.S., 27 June 1918Google Scholar, which was turned down by the Cabinet. Sykes then presented a ‘Memorandum on Air Power requirements of the Empire’, 9 Dec. 1918.Google Scholar See ibid., appendix VII, pp. 558–74. Sykes, Chief of Air Staff 1918–19, had served in Africa with the West African Regiment in Sierra Leone in 1903–4. His successor as C.A.S., Sir Hugh Trenchard, served with the W.A.F.F. in Nigeria in 1903–10.

24 ‘Aviation in Nigeria. Notes on the establishment and cost of a suggested flying unit attached to the W.A.F.F. in Nigeria' by Capt. Hellard, W. B., R.A.F., 1 Dec. 1917Google Scholar, CO 583/81/1273.

25 ‘Aeroplanes in West Africa’. Lt.-Col Rees to HQ W.A.F.F. Colonial Office, 17 Feb. 1919, and minute by Col. Beattie, 26 Feb. 1919, CO 554/44/10767.

26 Clifford to Milner, 3 April 1920, encl. ‘Report on “Aviation in Nigeria” by Sqd. Ldr. J. C. P. Wood, R.A.F’, CO 583/85/20183, also Guggisberg to Churchill, 18 May 1921, encl. ‘Report by Insp. Gen. W.A.F.F. on Gold Coast Regt., March 1921’, CO 445/55/29035. Amery, as under-secretary for Colonies, in 1919 offered Clifford, then governor of the Gold Coast, a number of surplus Air Ministry planes. He wrote: ‘You could have them both for military and for civil purposes. The Darfur campaign and the present Afghan campaign show how effective they are for the former.' Clifford Papers, Woking; Amery to Clifford, 31 May 1919.

27 ‘Report on Operations, South East Sudan, 1921’, AIR 20/680; and ‘Air Staff notes on the employment of aircraft in the Sudan’, 1 Jan. 1925, AIR 9/49/1.

28 For a recent account see Gray, Randall, ‘Bombing the Mad Mullah, 1920’, J.R.U.S.L, CXXXV (Dec. 1980), 41–47.Google Scholar

29 Boyle, Andrew, Trenchard. Man of vision (London 1962), 366.Google Scholar

30 Boyle, Trenchard, 367–368; Amery, L. S., who was then Under-Secretary of State for the colonies, mistakenly says in his memoirs that he originated the idea of using the air force in Somaliland (My political life, 11 (London 1953), 201).Google Scholar

31 ‘Operations in Somaliland against the Mullah, 1919–1920’, AIR 1/23/15/1/116; also ‘Report by Maj. W. L. Birch, R.A.F. on ‘Special mission to British Somaliland, 13 March 1919–2 April 1920’, AIR 1/36/15/1/238; and ‘Air Diary - Z Unit RAF British Somaliland’, AIR 5/1309; and ‘R.A.F. Operations - British Somaliland 1919–20’, AIR 5/1310. See also Bowhill, F. W., ‘The air operations in Somaliland’, RAF and Civil Aviation Record I (Nov. 1920), 410–418Google Scholar; Flt.-Lt. Skoulding, F. A., ‘With “Z” Unit in Somaliland’, The R.A.F. Quarterly, 11, iii (July 1931), 387–396Google Scholar; ‘Nomad’, ‘Forgotten Papers V. The Mad Mullah of Somaliland’, United Empire, XVI (1925), 76–80 and 137–142Google Scholar; Ismay, Lord, Memoirs (London, 1960), 29–35.Google Scholar

32 Archer to Milner, 15 May 1920, and Group-Capt. R. Gordon to Wing Comm. Steel, Air Ministry, London, 9 Feb. 1920, AIR 1/23/15/1/116.

33 In a Cabinet Memorandum, 1 May 1920; See also CAB 5/4, C.I.D. paper by Trenchard, , 135–6, March 1921.Google Scholar

34 Quoted in Jeffrey, Keith, ‘Sir Henry Wilson and the defence of the British Empire, 1918–22’ Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth Hist, V, 111 (May 1977), 286.Google Scholar

35 Howard, Maj. C. A. L., ‘Operations in British Somaliland, 1920’, J.R.U.S.I., LIII (Jan. 1923), 201–218Google Scholar, followed by a retort from Group Capt. Chanier, J. A., ‘Operations in British Somaliland’Google Scholaribid. LIV (Jan. 1924), 103–9, and Howard's reply, ibid. LV (Jan. 1925), 128–36.

36 Jardine, Douglas, The Mad Mullah of Somaliland (London, 1923), 280.Google Scholar The argument continued to the 1960s: see letters to the Daily Telegraph by Ismay, Lord, 13 April 1962Google Scholar, and Collie Knox, 27 April 1962. See Waldie, , ‘Relations’, 37 ff.Google Scholar

37 ‘Substitution: Somaliland: Extracts from Governor of Somaliland despatches on efficiency of air operations, 1920–30, AIR 5/1422 and AIR 5/428. See also ‘Somaliland-Substitution draft scheme’ by C.A.S., March 1930.Google Scholar

38 See the first few chapters of Waldie, ‘Relations’.

39 ‘Note on the Army in small wars’, by Group-Capt. Chanier, a Nov. 1921Google Scholar, AIR 8/45.

40 ‘The part of the Air Force of the future in Imperial Defence’ conf. Feb. 1921Google Scholar, AIR 9/15/3.

41 AIR 9/18/20/10/1–3, 1929–32.

42 ‘Mahdism in the Sudan’, Air Staff draft memorandum, Nov. 1926.Google Scholar AIR 9/49/5. See also CAP 2/4. C.I.D., 215th meeting, 22 July 1926.

43 Discussion of C.I.D., 220th meeting, 5 Feb. 1927, AIR 9/49/6.

44 See Collins, Robert O., Shadows in the Grass. Britain in the Southern Sudan, 1918–1956 (New Haven, 1983), 128–144Google Scholar; also ‘Operation reports on S8 and S9 Patrols’, AIR 20/681, 1927–8, and AIR 9/49/13, ‘Air Operations in Sudan, Dec. 1927’.

45 Air Vice-Marshal T. Twidible Bowen, A.O.C. R.A.F. Middle East, to Sir Hugh Trenchard, C.A.S., 3 March 1928, FO 141/519/19215. The ‘normal sequence of action’ by the authorities in the Sudan was laid down as follows: ‘(a) Issue of ultimatum and warnings by Political Officer; (b) Bombing of inanimate objects as moral demonstration; (c) Destruction of cattle or other animals; (d) Action against hostile personnel.’ FO 141/519/19215, ‘Warning to Lau Nuer before air action’, Civil Sec., Khartoum, secret, 9 Jan. 1928, by Col. F. P. Nosworthy, Chief Staff Officer for Raid, Sudan Defence Force.

46 Webster, J. H., Air Ministry to U.S./SFO 13 June 1928Google Scholar, secret, FO 141/519/19215.

47 ‘Memorandum on the use of the Air Force’, by Maffey, Sir John, 20 June 1928Google Scholar, FO 141/519/19215. The comment of the Air Staff on Maffey's memorandum was that the R.A.F. activity in the Sudan ‘has proved its value to the extent of converting the Governor-General from incredulous opposition to almost complete agreement with the claims of the Air Staff’, AIR 9/49/11. ‘The Garrison of the Sudan’, secret, June 1929Google Scholar, paper to the 243rd meeting of the C.I.D.

48 ‘Notes for CAS. Air control of the Sudan’, 18 July 1929Google Scholar, AIR 9/49/9.

49 ‘Operations-Nuer Settlement: 1928–29’, J. Masterman, Acting D.C. W. Nuer District, to Governor Upper Nile Province, 12 June 1929, encl. in AIR 20/683; ‘Operations- Nuer Settlements, 1928–29: Policy’, AIR 20/682; ‘Gaweir Nuer unrest, 1930’, AIR 20/684.; Air Staff Memorandum No. 47, ‘Air power and Imperial Defence, Nov. 1930’, pp. 30–1, for Nuer Settlement operations. On the background to the Nuer Settlement see Johnson, Douglas, ‘History and prophecy among the Nuer of the Southern Sudan’, 2 vols. (Ph.D. thesis, University of California, Los Angeles, 1980).Google Scholar

50 Air Vice-Marshal F Scammel, A.O.C. R.A.F. Middle East, 4 April 1930. ‘Operations on Nuba Mountains to enforce taxation’, 16–17 Dec. 1929, AIR 5/828.

51 ‘Note on air action in Upper Nile Province’, confidential by Wilson, B. T.Google Scholar for Kaid el'Amn, dated Khartoum 11 May 1932, encl. in AIR 20/687, ‘Air Operations - Annuak, 1931’.

52 Occupation of Boma Plateau, 1936’, AIR 20/693. For air operations against Ethiopian cattle raiders in 1930s, see ‘Operations at Gaderef’, AIR 20/688.

53 ‘Note on the status of the R.A.F. in the Sudan’, draft by Dep. Dir. Operations, May 1936, AIR 9/49/18. For air policy in 1937 see ‘Operations – Annuak-Beir (Murle), May 1937’, AIR 20/694.

54 Gwynn, Sir Charles W., Imperial Policing (London, 1934), 352–353.Google Scholar

55 Beaumont, , ‘Policing the Empire’, 86–87.Google Scholar

56 ‘Air control in undeveloped countries’, Air Staff Memorandum No. 41, conf., 1 Jan. 1929, AIR 20/674. See also the lecture on ‘Substitution’ by Bullock, Sir C. Le, and note by Trenchard, Lord, 17 Jan. 1932Google Scholar, AIR 9/18/20. See AIR 9/18 for ‘Substitution 1929–33’.

57 See House of Lords Debates, vol. 77, cols. 23–9, 9 April 1930. for Trenchard's views on substitution. File AIR 9/62 contains letters to newspapers following the speech. For an earlier lecture by Trenchard, when he was C.A.S., see ‘The employment of air power in overseas defence’, addressed to Secretary of State for Air, 3 Jan. 1925, AIR 9/15/20.

58 E.g. Brig.-Gen. Groves, P. R. C., Behind the Smoke Screen (London, 1934), 281–292Google Scholar; Hart, B. Liddell, The British Way in Warfare (London, 1932)Google Scholar; Amery, L. S., The Forward View (London, 1935), 59Google Scholar; Saundby, Sir Robert, Air Bombardment. The Story of its Development (London, 1961).Google Scholar By 1937 Air-Comm. C. F. A. Portal wrote that the controversy over the Air Force role ‘is now dead’ although certain misunderstandings remained: ‘Air Force co-operation in Policing the Empire: A Lecture’, 17 Feb. 1937Google Scholar, J.R.U.S.I. LXXXII (May 1937), 347–348.Google Scholar

59 House of Commons Debates, vol. 280, col. 341 (5 July 1933). See also letter by Harris, Sir John to Manchester Guardian, (12 June 1933).Google Scholar An epithet used by the Morning Post was ‘bombing for taxes’.

60 House of Lords Debates, vol. 77 (3 April 1930), cols. 39–42, speech by Lord Lloyd.

61 House of Commons Debates, vol. 280, cols. 353–4, 5 July 1933. See ‘H. W.’ (Wing Commander E. L. H. Williams), ‘Air bombing - in humanity's name’, African Observer (Bulawayo), IV, iv (Feb. 1936), 20–30Google Scholar; and Sqd.-Ldr. Kinston-McCloughry, E. J., Winged Warfare. Air Problems of Peace and War (London, 1937), 209 ff.Google Scholar For the background to the debate on aerial bombing see Royse, M. W., Aerial Bombardment and the International Regulation of Warfare (New York, 1928)Google Scholar, and Lester, H Bruce, ‘An effort to regulate aerial bombing. The Hague Commission of Jurists, 1922–23’, Aerospace Historian, XXIX 111 (1982) 183–185.Google Scholar

62 Air Staff Memorandum no. 47, confidential,’ Air Power and Imperial Defence, Nov. 1930, appendix v,’ AIR 5/171.

63 Air Staff Note: ‘Substitution in East Africa, 1929,’ AIR 9/18/20/11/1; and ‘Substitution in West African colonies, August 1929, AIR 9/18/20/12/1; ‘Priorities in consideration of substitution schemes’, Air Staff, 30 Dec. 1929, AIR 9/18/1.

64 Cabinet Paper 332 (29), ‘The fuller employment of air power in Imperial defence,’ memorandum by C.A.S., Nov. 1929, AIR 8/45.

65 See the various papers in ‘Defence of colonies and protectorates - air questions, 1932–35’, AIR 9/44.

66 Gp.-Capt. Arthur Harris to C.A.S. dated Nairobi, 4 Feb. 1932, AIR 9/18/20/2/6.

67 Extract from letter of Gp.-Capt. Arthur Harris to C.A.S., 1932, AIR 9/18/20/2/9.

68 Gp.-Capt. Arthur Harris to C.A.S., dated Tabora, 7 March 1932, AIR 9/18/20/2/7.

69 ‘East Africa and Substitution’, memorandum by Gp.-Capt. Arthur Harris to C.A.S., secret, 20 July 1933, AIR 9/59. Wilkinson, O.C. K.A.R., in an attempt to exclude the R.A.F., proposed a Volunteer Air Unit for Kenya.

70 ‘Report on organization of defence in East and Central Africa’ by Brig. C. C. Norman and Air Vice-Marshal C. L. N. Newall, 7 March 1934, AIR 9/66, and also AIR 9/18/20/16. See also Moyse-Bartlett, H., The King's African Rifles. A study in the Military History of East and Central Africa (Aldershot, 1956), 466.Google Scholar

71 See Kaniki, M. H. Y., ‘Labour and the economy of colonial violence’, African Research Review xxxi (June 1981), 12.Google Scholar In the previous year Newall's proposal for an air and machine gun unit for Northern Rhodesia had been rejected by Brig. Norman largely on questions of cost. In a ‘Review of the tribal situation’, prepared by the secretariat in Lusaka, , 6 Feb. 1934Google Scholar, one experienced provincial commissioner was quoted as saying: ‘Give me a few extra civil police and an aeroplane and I will cope with any trouble likely to arise in my Province in the next ten years’, encl. in AIR 9/66, appendix A.

72 ‘Defence of colonies and protectorate – air questions, Southern Rhodesia’, 23 July 1935Google Scholar, AIR 9/44/28 ‘Southern Rhodesia’, report by Gp.-Capt. Harris, Arthur, 1936Google Scholar, AIR 9/66.

73 ‘Defence of colonies and protectorates. Air questions’, AIR 9/44/31, 1936. The Ethiopian Air Force, established in 1929, consisted of thirteen aircraft in 1935, but only eight were airworthy. Pankhurst, R., Economic History of Ethiopia 1800–1935 (Addis Ababa, 1968), 605–606.Google Scholar

74 For the latter incident see Iliffe, John, A Modern History of Tanganyika (Cambridge, 1979), 280.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

75 Collins, , Shadows in the Grass, pp. 400–401Google Scholar; Almagor, Uri, ‘The War of the Ilemi Appendix’, unpubl. seminar paper, Institute of Commonwealth Studies, University of London (1982), p. 5.Google Scholar

76 FO 371/35607/35608; Gilkes, Patrick, The Dying Lion. Feudalism and modernization in Ethiopia (London, 1973), 189–191.Google Scholar Haile Selassie, the Emperor of Ethiopia, had since 1917 used aircraft to assert central government control, e.g. in the siege of Magdala in 1917 and in the Oromo revolt in 1930.

77 Haywood, A. and Clarke, F. A. S., The History of the Royal West African Frontier Force (Aldershot, 1964), 476–480Google Scholar, which details the use of transport aircraft during the troubles on the Cameroon and Togo borders and unrest at Kano and Kumasi.

78 Foran, W. R., The Kenya Police 1887–1960 (London, 1962), ch. 32.Google Scholar

79 Reeves, Ambrose, Shooting at Sharpeville (London, 1960), 34, 58.Google Scholar